Resilient
rural women’s livelihoods for poverty alleviation and economic empowerment in
semi-arid regions of Zimbabwe
Abstract
The purpose of this article
was to examine the implementation of rural women’s livelihoods towards economic
empowerment of women in Chivi District of Zimbabwe. A drought-ridden and
semi-arid district because of climate change, Chivi District receives very low
annual rainfall which impacts negatively on agriculture as the main rural
women’s livelihood among others such as craftwork, pottery, gardening and
poultry projects. Using a case study approach that triangulates interviews,
focus groups and documents, the article found out that women faced numerous
challenges. The findings of the study revealed that in their quest to reduce
poverty and economically empower themselves, women encountered the lack of
access to competitive markets, micro-insure rural women’s livelihoods, lack of
access to credit facilities, lack of entrepreneurial education and training,
effects of climate change, limited use of technology to stimulate rural women’s
livelihoods. The article concludes that to achieve economic empowerment through
resilient rural women’s livelihoods, access to competitive markets and
entrepreneurial education supported by adequate funding is fundamental.
Introduction
Rural women around the world are instrumental in poverty reduction
and sustainable development in communities and households through a myriad of
livelihood strategies (Fonchingong 2005;
Mutopo 2014).
In developing countries, women make important contributions to the rural
economies through livelihoods, as farm labourers on their farms or as wage
labourers on other people’s farms, producing for their own consumption or for
selling or both (Fonchingong 2005;
Mutopo 2014;
Scoones 2009;
Vercillo 2016).
Although their roles vary a great deal in different regions, they manage
complex households and are involved in multiple livelihood strategies. FAO IFAD
and ILO (2010)
state that women’s roles include agricultural work such as livestock
production, food processing and preparation, a collection of firewood and water
for household use and home maintenance. These activities are not included as
‘economically active employment’ in national accounts but are imperative to
their household’s well-being (SOFA Team & Cheryl 2011).
Although these livelihood activities require women to work for long hours,
women’s efforts are negatively affected by socio-economic inequalities and
marginalisation (Zaidi & Munir 2014).
Poverty reduction and sustainable development rely mostly on
empowering people, especially the poor people. One of the avenues to empower
the poor and rural women is through interventions for sustainable livelihoods.
Women play a key role in rural livelihoods for household food security and
income generation (Kristjanson et al. 2014;
McKee 1989;
Mutopo 2014;
Oberhauser, Mandel & Hapke 2004).
Livelihoods are termed as the activities and the resources done to gain a
living. The most common definition of livelihoods encompasses the capabilities,
assets and activities used in order to gain a living. Central to the
sustainability of livelihoods is the livelihood assets, which are the means of
production available to communities to generate material resources in order to
survive (Vercillo 2016).
Sustainable livelihoods are those that can cope with and recover from
vulnerabilities. These should be able to maintain their form and structure,
maintain their capabilities and assets presently and in future without
negatively affecting the natural resource base. The process of sustainability
relies hugely on the resilience of rural livelihoods to various challenges for
the empowerment of rural women (Davies et al. 2013).
The multiple and diverse constraints include the lack of appropriate
technologies, unequal access to productive resources and services, inadequate
or inaccessible infrastructure, limited access to credit, health care and
education, global food and economic crises and climate change (Garikipati 2010).
In sub-Saharan Africa, rural women rely on agriculture as their main source of
food and other diverse livelihoods as their source of income (Mutopo 2014).
Therefore, any initiative that empowers them to reach their full capacity will
not only empower women but also drive the socio-economic growth of communities
(Ellis & Freeman 2004;
Frost et al. 2007;
Kristjanson et al. 2014;
Scoones et al. 1996).
Hill (2011)
opines that rural women’s livelihoods in semi-arid regions can contribute
towards poverty reduction and women’s economic empowerment as women become
independent to generate their own income for sustaining their livelihoods. The
Government of Sweden (2010)
admits that women’s economic empowerment increases women’s access to
opportunities and resources, which include jobs, properties, assets and
financial services. Therefore, this article argues that women’s economic
empowerment through livelihood development in semi-arid regions is tantamount
to repositioning women and improving the well-being of their families
(OECD 2010).
To this end, therefore, there is a need to motivate for the creation of
resilient livelihood strategies and much more resilient communities for
survival. Diverse rural livelihoods can be used, for rural women, to bridge
gender disparities, discrimination and ethnicity challenges, as well as
reducing poverty, and act as coping strategies to disastrous shocks and
stresses in semi-arid regions where economic opportunities are limited
(Maroyi 2009;
Shackleton, Shackleton & Cousins 2001).
Livelihoods of people cannot be sustainable if they are not resilient. A
livelihood is sustainable when it can cope with all the shocks and stresses and
recover unchanged; it should be able to enhance capabilities and assets without
undermining the natural resource base (Gwimbi 2009).
This study used the sustainable livelihoods theory to explore the
sustainability of rural women’s livelihoods in the semi-arid regions of
Zimbabwe, in particular, Chivi District. FAO (2011)
claims that, although livelihoods diversification has been highly supported for
rural households, agriculture has remained the main livelihood for rural women
to promote food security, even in drought-prone regions. Gangata and Matavire (2013)
assert that rural areas in Zimbabwe have suffered various shocks and stresses;
these include persistent economic meltdowns and climate changes, such as
droughts and floods that negatively affect agriculture. These shocks have left
a wake of poverty, hunger and a general decline in living standards, especially
for people in the rural areas with limited access to resources. These drastic
changes have also facilitated shifts for women to play active roles in
income-generating activities (Fook 2011).
Statement of the problem
Various disasters and challenges have an impact on livelihoods of
rural women in Zimbabwe (Scoones 2009).
The effects of climate change present devastating consequences on many
districts in Zimbabwe, of which Chivi District is no exception. Chivi District
normally receives low annual rainfall as it lies in a semi-arid region, which
has threatened rural women’s livelihoods. The increasing poverty because of
various challenges forced some women to embark on numerous livelihood
strategies that include pottery, gardening, poultry farming, community-driven
irrigation farming, sewing and credit clubs, to generate employment and improve
household income. However, these rural women’s livelihoods are not sustainable
due to the lack of financial, physical and human capital; and lack of social,
natural capital and household assets that enable viable livelihood execution.
Several studies have shown that agriculture as the main rural women’s
livelihood is being constrained by dry spells, flooding, cyclones, droughts and
heat waves which affect crop production (Gwimbi 2009;
Matondi 2011;
Scoones 1996;
Scoones et al. 1996).
This article, therefore, observes that rural women’s livelihoods are not
resilient and this may be because they are not being adequately supported and
funded by either government or stakeholders. There is a need to create and
boost resilient livelihoods for rural women to reduce poverty and promote
women’s economic empowerment (Davies et al. 2013).
The article, therefore, adopted a sustainable livelihood approach to assess the
resilience and sustainability of livelihoods of women in Chivi District.
Aim and objective
The main aim of this study was to explore the livelihoods of rural
women for poverty alleviation and economic empowerment in the semi-arid region
of Chivi District in Zimbabwe. The main objective of this article was to
explore different strategies that can be used to empower women through
livelihoods in Chivi District. The article stresses the importance of
empowering rural women as transformation agents for increasing household income
in semi-arid regions. The article sought to close this gap by answering the
following questions: Do rural women’s livelihoods mitigate poverty and improve
household income in Chivi. Are rural women’s livelihoods resilient to various
stresses to promote women’s economic empowerment in semi-arid regions of
Zimbabwe?
Literature review
In the quest to gain familiarity with the livelihoods of rural
women and the challenges faced, an extensive review of the literature was done.
This section with varied sub-topics pursued an understanding of rural women’s
livelihoods and the challenges they face. Theoretical explanations were also
explored to understand the phenomenon. The literature review was done using the
following sub-topics to promote clarity: the global context of rural women’s
livelihoods, resilient pathways in semi-arid regions and rural women’s
livelihoods in semi-arid regions of Zimbabwe. The sub-topics were used to
promote focus and allow for an in-depth analysis of concepts.
The global context of
rural women’s livelihoods
Livelihoods are the strategies that people perform to satisfy
their needs and earn a living (Bryceson 2002).
These livelihoods are possible activities to earn an income and could be from
hired employment, self-employment, remittances or a combination (Gwimbi 2009;
Kristjanson et al. 2014;
Mutopo 2014;
Shackleton et al. 2001).
Sustainable livelihoods are those livelihoods that are sufficient enough to
avoid poverty and improve the general well-being of households and families
(FAO 2011).
Rural livelihoods imply the systems in place for rural people to make a living,
whether their livelihoods are secure or vulnerable over time. Livelihood
security is the secure access, availability and ownership of resources, assets
and reserves to ease shocks meet contingencies and offset risk (Gerbens-Leenes
& Nonhebel 2005;
Gladwin et al. 2001;
Hermann et al. 2012).
Lin (2011)
and Mudimu (2002)
argue that rural women globally encounter various issues that include the
changes occurring because of globalisation and technological advancement,
policies and external interventions, access to and control over resources,
women in leadership and strengthening capabilities such as education, health
and equality. Although agriculture has remained the major employer of rural
women across the world, especially in sub-Saharan Africa and Southern Asia, it
has emerged to be a challenge to sustain households based on agricultural
activities alone (Batterbury 2008;
Bryceson 2002;
Davies et al. 2013;
Ejigu 2008;
FAO et al. 2010;
Zeitoun 2011).
In an attempt to achieve economic empowerment, rural women have adopted
numerous livelihood strategies to supplement their income they obtain from
agriculture. Nevertheless, this diversification is understood to be controlled
by factors such as access to resources and education (FAO et al. 2010;
Mutopo 2014;
O’Laughlin 1998;
UNDAW & UNIFEM 2001).
The diversification may also take different forms depending on the country. In
Latin America, women work for bigger agribusiness companies, for example, the
flower plantations of Ecuador, and earn wages seasonally. In Thailand, women
have sub-contracted their family plots for the production of baby corn and
asparagus for a bigger company (UNDAW & UNDESA 2008).
Some women raised shrimp under contract with big companies for export, and this
has seen women earning more than they did when they grew rice and also has cut
down the hours women have to be working (UNDAW & UNDESA 2008).
In South and South-East Asia, many rural women were forced to migrate to urban
areas to look for employment opportunities because agriculture was failing. In
Bangladesh, the larger number of rural women migrating for work opportunities
in urban areas were unmarried and divorced, with only basic levels of education
(Davies et al. 2013;
UNDAW & UNDESA 2008).
These women would find themselves working in textile industries, which employ
many women (UNDAW & UNDESA 2008).
Oberhauser et al. (2004)
argue that rural women use a myriad of livelihoods in order to meet their
responsibilities. For instance, women in Porto Novo were said to be indulging
in selling food as it brought regular income and created an avenue for food
availability for their families (Oberhauser et al. 2004).
In developing countries, studies have shown that despite constraints and
challenges they face, women still reserve the right to choose a form of
livelihood strategy which befits them, and this has provided a sense of
ownership guaranteeing hard work and dedication from the women (UNDAW &
UNIFEM 2001).
In countries such as Pennsylvania and South Africa, this freedom of choice has
enabled women to hold relative decision-making powers on what is best for their
families (Oberhauser et al. 2004).
Nonetheless, decisions are affected by the availability and accessibility of
markets, infrastructure, religions and customs that prohibit women’s
participation in economic activities. For countries in semi-arid regions, such
as Zimbabwe, South Africa and Botswana, the choice of livelihoods is affected
by various challenges; some of these are natural such as droughts, cyclones and
other aspects that are detrimental to the execution of livelihood strategies
(Campbell et al. 2002;
Ellis 2000;
Frost et al. 2007).
In such situations, rural communities find ways of coping with such scenarios
and their ability to deal with such shocks culminates to community empowerment
(Kabeer & Natali 2013).
Resilient communities use ways to manage risks that promote sustainable
development and enable transformation.
Resilience pathways in
semi-arid regions
The context that makes a sustainable livelihoods theory relevant
to resilience building empowerment of women and reduction of poverty is the
increased exposure to risks and vulnerabilities faced by rural women on
livelihoods (Davies et al. 2013),
which in turn affects negatively on family well-being. This article focuses on
building resilient livelihoods in order to empower rural women. Resilient
livelihoods are those that are protected from shocks and stresses to make
community systems more resilient and capable of cushioning the impacts and
recover from disrupting events (Batterbury 2008;
Charman 2008;
Chazovachii & Chuma 2013;
Scoones 2009).
Resilience refers to the capacity to return to equilibrium after a disturbance,
or the amount of disturbance a system can handle before the change of state
(Holling 1973;
Klein, Nicholls & Thomalla 2003;
Maleksaeidi & Karami 2013;
Neubert et al. 2011). In a study by Nelson and Stathers (2009),
resilience in the socio-ecological context refers to the process of using
resources, abilities and adaptation capacities to cushion shocks and stresses
while ensuring self-organisation and enabling recovery. Birkmann (2006)
and Davies et al. (2013)
posited that resilient livelihoods are able to cope with and recover from
challenges, shocks and stresses without undermining the environment, and they
should be reliable and sustainable to provide enough for households. Therefore,
resilience becomes a process of cushioning shocks and stresses arising by using
different resources and capacities to achieve a state of adaptation. A
resilient system has the potential to achieve sustainability and security
(Klein et al. 2003).
Resilience means despite the shocks, stresses and other extreme events, the
systems will still have the same identity, same structures and function in the
same way (Folke et al. 2002).
Resilience also includes learning, coping with events, adaptation as well as
recovery from stresses arising ending in the improvement, advanced and
sustainable ways of dealing with the ever-changing and unpredictable issues
(Perrings 2006;
Rockström 2003).
Pathways to sustainable resilient livelihoods call for a number of
actions to be considered that promote the empowerment of rural women and
household well-being. These interactions should include the improvement of
access to resources, improvement of agricultural practices, diversification of
livelihoods and the general empowerment of women (Gabrielsson &
Ramasar 2013;
Mortimore et al. 2009).
Rural women in semi-arid regions face challenges in dealing with disasters,
shocks and stresses that arise because they lack access to information and
coping mechanisms (Davies 2015). Livelihoods in Chivi District depend on crop
production, which is highly seasonal; small livestock production like chickens
and goats, maricho (casual employment) in wealthier
households; and, in some cases, gold panning, especially in areas along Runde
River (WFP 2014).
Resource endowments in this area are poor, and the area is susceptible to
extreme natural hazards caused by climatic changes such as droughts, floods and
heat waves. Poverty levels are very high and women emerge as the most
vulnerable (WFP 2015).
In this article, resilience promotes ways in which rural women
deal with challenges arising from their own environments. Resilient livelihoods
are important for fostering human well-being, better living standards and
accelerating access to basic needs by empowering women economically
(Pelling 2011).
Formation of resilient livelihoods draws on the remembrance of ways and
strategies, which have been used over time to try to cope with challenges
affecting the livelihoods of rural women (Lin 2011;
Maleksaeidi & Karami 2013;
Nelson & Stathers 2009;
Neubert et al. 2011). Some authors argue that there is no sustainability
without resilience and that any development strategy formulated will not be
sustainable if it is not resilient (Klein et al. 2003;
Perrings 2006).
The social aspect of resilience was added as scholars acknowledged the
importance of humans with their ability to visualise, foresee, predict and plan
which enhances the resilience of a system (Perrings 2006).
Therefore, resilient livelihoods may also enable communities to survive disasters
and poverty, and achieve sustainability. The argument is that to attain
sustainable livelihoods, farmers should be inventive and resilient (Maleksaeidi
& Karami 2013).
They should have the capacity to withstand shocks and stresses that occur with
climate change and the environmental processes; they should be able to improve,
withstand and recover (Maleksaeidi & Karami 2013).
The review revealed the importance of promoting resilience building through
livelihoods for the empowerment of rural women and households. The importance
of empowering women is imperative in ensuring that rural women have access to
resources that are needed by their households. As alluded in previous
literature, the importance of rural women in development and the roles played
by women in societies will be more defined with more positive effects if they
have resilient livelihoods.
Rural women’s
livelihoods in semi-arid regions of Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe has an agro-based economy that provides the largest
avenue for employment and income generation, food for families, as well as a
source of direct nutritional food in most households (Chirau, Nkambule &
Mupambwa 2014;
Makura-Paradza 2010;
Maroyi 2009;
Matondi 2011;
Mutopo 2014;
Vercillo 2016).
Agriculture tends to receive more attention from people, organisations and the
government in terms of funding, subsidies and research. According to ZimVAC (2017),
about 80% of the population in Zimbabwe relies on agriculture. In another study
by Matondi (2011),
rural populations in Zimbabwe attempt to secure their livelihoods by focusing
on both crop production and animal production. In most areas of rural Zimbabwe,
production of crops such as maize, cotton, tobacco, small grains, soya beans
and sunflowers has become a seasonal occupation leading to the adoption of
other livelihoods off-season (Bird & Shepher, 2003;
Makura-Paradza 2010;
Ncube 2012).
In other studies by Matondi (2011)
and Mutami and Chazovachii (2012),
it was noted that market gardening, pottery, traditional beer brewing, sewing
and crocheting as well as buying and selling of small commodities have provided
for extra income needed during off-seasons and extra occupations in a season.
Description of the study
area
Chivi District is situated 60 km – 70 km southwest of Masvingo
town in Zimbabwe. The area lies within the agro-ecological regions four and
five, which are semi-arid regions highly characterised by poor rainfalls, high
temperatures and continuous dry spells (Gerhardt & Nemarundwe 2006;
Scoones et al. 1996).
Poor soils in this area cannot produce good yields without the use of
fertilisers or manure, which are not readily available to all households. The
rainfall that is received per annum is 530 mm on average, and drought is a
recurrent phenomenon occurring almost three years out of every five years
(Gerhardt & Nemarundwe 2006).
The pressure on land is increasing with the rapid population growth rate. The
surveyed villages are Jenya village, which falls in Ward 7; Zhara village which
falls in Ward 20; and Hapazari and Charashika villages, which fall in Ward 14.
According to the census data, the district has a recorded population of 166 049
people, with 54.3% females and 45.7% males. The total 97.4% of these people
live in the rural area, while 2.6% live in urban with a density of about 70
people/km2 (Zimstats 2012).
Individual households have about 1.2 ha of land with most households landless
(WFP 2015).
This has led to settlements on marginal land such as grazing areas, which has
affected livestock keeping; the number of animals kept decreasing. The status
of the nature of livelihoods as expressed in scholarly articles showed that in
this district, agriculture is regarded as important although insufficient to
provide enough (Gerhardt & Nemarundwe 2006;
Scoones et al. 1996).
A shift from maize production was also noted in some of the studies with
farmers preferring small grain like sorghum and millet as these crops are more
drought resistant (Mutopo 2014).
Rural women in this area also dominate with a larger number of women than men;
however, access to and control of resources remain a male-dominated area
(Makura-Paradza 2010).
These challenges that women face have led them to come up with coping
strategies that cushion these challenges such as diversification of livelihoods
and adoption of non-farm activities for income. The map (Figure 1) shows the case study area location in Zimbabwe.
Map for Chivi District in Zimbabwe. Arrow showing Chivi District
in Zimbabwe.
Breaking the cycle of
gender discrimination against women
The sustainable development goals (SDGs) pushed for gender
equality and the empowerment of women in all areas to achieve sustainable
development (Hak et al. 2016;
Sachs 2012).
Rural women spend most of their time working on unpaid chores and lack opportunities
such as access to resources, to make their time a lot more productive. The
larger number of people in the rural areas are women; according to Zimstats (2012),
the number of women in Chivi District is 90 170, while that of men is 75 879.
Of the 166 049 people in Chivi District, 161 757 people live in the rural area
making up 97% of the population. In most cases, rural areas are behind in
development and well-being of the larger number of people; this is because of
poor or lack of access to resources such as new technologies and improved
methods of doing things, and lack of capital to diversify and improve their
livelihoods. This has made rural areas prone to poverty (Ogunlela &
Mukhtar 2009).
This is also increased by the fact that most parts of Zimbabwe are patriarchal
societies that have socio-cultural and political notions in favour of men
(Mutopo 2014).
Patriarchy has led to the marginalisation of women in accessing productive
resources, markets and services.
There is a wide recognition by scholars and other development
players that in most countries, women in agriculture face much more challenges
than their male counterparts (Mutopo 2014;
Oberhauser et al. 2004;
UNDAW & UNIFEM 2001;
UNDAW & UNDESA 2008).
This has led to a call for governments and institutions of development to
include women in all developmental strategies, policies and legislation, so as
to ensure that they reach their full capacity (FAO 2011).
Sustainability of agricultural development calls for the closure of gender
gaps; the argument is that this closure would bring about an increase in
agricultural productivity, reduction of hunger and poverty as well as the
promotion of economic growth (FAO 2011).
This equality should also be incorporated even at household levels where women
should be empowered to make major decisions and have access to resources and
household income; this would be ideal because it would strengthen the position
of women outside the home as well.
Theoretical framework
This article is underpinned by the sustainable livelihoods
framework (SLF), which helps to explain rural women’s livelihoods that target
economic empowerment in semi-arid regions of Zimbabwe. The sustainable
livelihoods framework is undeniably helpful in the understanding of rural
livelihoods and their sustainability. This framework was used to understand in
particular the nature of livelihoods of rural women in Chivi District. It is
helpful to the understanding of the distribution of work and chores within
households between men and women (Chirau et al. 2014).
The framework is also helpful in the understanding of socio-cultural, economic
and political factors at play and how they are restrictive or supportive in the
sustainability of rural livelihoods, especially those of women
(Makura-Paradza 2010).
Although the approach emphasises the strengths of people, it largely
encompasses issues supporting environmental, socio-economic and institutional
stability.
The SLF focuses on five forms of capitals or assets important to
the sustainability of livelihoods, which are human, social, physical, natural
and financial upon which people build their livelihoods. The implementation of
the SLF begins by looking at the available assets of an individual or
households; these are the things owned and controlled by a family
(Scoones 1998).
These assets allow the people to survive, engage in markets and participate in
various activities within a community. The framework has also become popular as
a way of conceptualising the economic activities of disadvantaged people in
communities. The argument is that livelihoods are all about assets, systems,
structures, sources of subsistence, income and position in societies
(Vercillo 2016).
A livelihood is believed to be sustainable if it can survive various shocks and
stresses that arise (Scoones 1998).
The key issues to achieve sustainable livelihoods include access and control
over productive resources, entrepreneur development work, climate change and
adaptation and women’s economic empowerment (Bird & Shepherd 2003;
Hoddinott 2006;
Mutami & Chazovachii 2012;
Shackleton et al. 2001).
The SLF has five major sections which are vulnerability context,
livelihood assets, transforming processes and structures, livelihood strategies
and livelihood outcomes (Scoones 1998).
On vulnerability context, the framework dwells on the trends, seasonality, as
well as shocks and stresses that have an impact on the decision made by people
on livelihoods. The vulnerability context looks at the risks and challenges
that rural women’s livelihoods are exposed to in Chivi District. These
challenges include lack of access to resources, climate change, gender roles
and lack of capital. The asset briefcase holds human capital that includes
education, skills and labour capacity of people to pursue a certain activity
(Scoones 1998).
Social capital includes the status bearing of women in societies and the need
to eradicate discriminatory notions, family and community support as a social
capital helps to support the promotion of sustainable livelihoods. Natural
capital is the access to natural resources which promote the livelihoods such
as land. According to Mutopo (2011),
rural women lack access to productive resources such as capital and land which
hinder the viability of their livelihoods. Financial capital is related to
access to credit and finance resources; rural people lack access to credit
facilities because of lack of assets they can use as collateral; land ownership
is communal and not by title deeds which make it difficult to build assets for
credit (Mutopo 2014).
Physical capital entails the infrastructure that is available to women which
improve their access to water, health care, housing, communication and other
social services that people draw from for sustainability of livelihoods
(Vercillo 2016).
The transforming structures are referred to as those institutions and
organisations affecting the use of various capitals people have in order to
pursue their livelihoods (Vercillo 2016).
Rural women pursue these livelihoods to earn income and achieve households,
family well-being, security and other productive things of life. Makura-Paradza
(2010)
argues that a household is said to have a sustainable livelihood by the
realisation of outcomes such as increased household or family well-being,
improved food security, reduced vulnerabilities as well as the improved
sustainable use of resources.
Materials and methods
This article sets to assess the various rural women’s livelihood
strategies used by women to mitigate poverty and improve household income in
Chivi District. In their quest to reduce poverty, women in Chivi District were
affected by various challenges which act as obstacles to women’s economic
empowerment. These have been elucidated below.
Design
The primary purpose of this article was to identify, describe and
analyse rural women’s livelihoods and how they impact on women’s economic
empowerment in Chivi District of Zimbabwe. This article used a case study
research design where reports from previous studies were explored in order to
understand complex and specific phenomena based on the ‘multiplicity of
perspectives which are rooted in a specific context’ (Ritchie &
Lewis, 2010).
This design is explanatory in nature and is regarded as a robust research
method, specifically when a holistic in-depth investigation is required
(Gulsecen & Kubat 2006;
Johnson 2006).
Creswell (2013)
affirms that:
a case study design explores a real-life, contemporary bounded
system (a case) or multiple bounded systems (cases) over time, through
detailed, in depth data collection involving multiple sources of information…
and reports a case description and case themes. (p. 97)
A case study design, as Gillham (2000)
observes, enables an inquiry to answer the research questions of a study. The
design seeks a variety of diverse evidence from the case setting which is the
social environment. The role of a case study design becomes more prominent in
issues related to poverty and unemployment; hence, it has been used in this
article to explain the nature of rural women’s livelihoods for economic
empowerment in Chivi District of Zimbabwe. The case study design enables the
researcher to examine the sustainability of rural women’s livelihoods and
assess if household income has been improved and poverty reduced among women.
Sampling technique
The study adopted a purposive sampling technique as the
researchers intended to interview the participants with the intimate knowledge
of participation in rural women’s livelihoods in selected villages in Chivi
District. The sample of this article consisted of 40 women who were selected
from an estimated population of 160 women involved in rural livelihoods across
many villages in Chivi District. Only 40 women were chosen as participants
based on their involvement in various women’s livelihood projects such as
agriculture and pottery among others. Two focus group discussions (FDGs)
consisting of ten people in each group were used for this study, and 20 women
involved in rural women’s livelihoods were interviewed to get in depth data on
how rural women’s livelihoods transform their standards of living in the
semi-arid district. FDGs were used to enable many rural women who engage in
various livelihood strategies to participate in the study.
Data analysis
This article employed semi-structured interviews and documents to
collect data. Semi-structured interviews were used because they allowed the
researchers to conduct a person-to-person interaction; hence, face-to-face
conversation increases the response rate by allowing the use of pictures,
gestures and words (Kumar 2011).
The main objective of this article was to examine the effectiveness of rural
women’s livelihood towards rescuing poverty and economically empowering women
in Chivi District. Therefore, interviews and focus group discussions (FDGs)were
transcribed verbatim and presented using themes emerging from the article’s
objectives. Thematic analysis, therefore, was used for analysing the secondary
data based on the research objectives of this study. Boyatzis (1998)
explains that thematic analysis identifies analyses and reports patterns
(themes) within data. It organises and describes data in detail and interprets
various aspects of the research topic. Therefore, in this article, thematic
analysis was fundamental for identifying relevant data on the rural women’s
livelihoods in Chivi District; it interprets and analyses the livelihoods to
see if they are sustainable enough to enhance women’s economic empowerment in
the drought-ridden district.
Results and discussion
The lack of access to
competitive markets
Women in semi-arid regions of Zimbabwe are the front runners of
the entrepreneurial economy through various rural livelihood strategies such as
pottery, cooperatives vending and agriculture among others. In Chivi District,
rural women’s livelihoods practised are mainly irrigation schemes and pottery.
These economic empowerment initiatives are constrained by a lack of access to
competitive markets. As a marginalised district, Chivi District does not
provide ready markets, and hence, distant markets are favourable although these
women do not have adequate transport to ferry their goods for selling. Studies
conducted by Ncube (2012)
and Mutami and Chazovachii (2012)
attest to these findings when they revealed that women in developing countries
are facing unequal barriers in accessing and standing market competitions.
Although the livelihoods are aimed at women’s economic empowerment, the
unavailability of ready markets incapacitates women in Chivi District. For
example, favourable markets are in remote areas such as Masvingo town some 60
km – 70 km away. Lack of transport is another hindrance to transporting
products to markets in time hence discouraging women’s economic empowerment.
An in-depth interview with one participant revealed this challenge
when the woman stated that:
‘I have established my skills in making pots, I make various pots
for different purposes, in towns most people like the decorative pots that I
design for their displays but the major problem is how to carry the pots in
bulk to town for selling. The towns are very far from here and I do not have
reliable transport considering the fragility of my items. This has made it very
difficult to earn from pottery as I end up selling the pottery along the main
road. When I grow vegetables in my garden I can only rely on other villagers to
come and buy or send to nearby school to sell to teachers. If sales are poor I
am forced to dry the vegetables which are very difficult to sell.’ (Female
Villager Participant, in her 50s)
The World Bank (2007)
argues that to achieve economic empowerment, women should be empowered to
become competitive. This is imperative for closing the economic gap between men
and women in business. Therefore, to achieve women’s economic empowerment in
semi-arid regions, information dissemination on the availability of ready
markets should be increased among rural women in Chivi to avoid trading their
agricultural outputs in domestic markets at a lower price because of the lack
of access to markets. Therefore, to increase the competitiveness of markets,
women need to be educated and informed on how to use modern technologies where
they can access other favourable and effective markets.
The need to micro-insure
rural women’s livelihoods
It is common knowledge that financing rural women’s livelihoods in
semi-arid regions of Zimbabwe has been done by non-governmental organisations
(NGOs) because of government failure to fund such projects. Non-governmental
organisations lack adequate funding because of changing priorities in the donor
countries and other harsh government measures that always discourage
fundraising; hence, rural women’s livelihoods often suffer from lack of
funding. Findings from key informant interviews revealed that in Chivi District
rural women’s livelihoods are mostly uninsured which results in their failure
due to economic trends and lack of financial backup. Talking to these women, it
emerged that most of these women did not know about insurance and its purpose.
One woman said:
‘I have no idea what insurance is all about. In the villages, if
you lose property due to fire you can only rely on neighbours’ generosity to
help you. In cases of thefts and crop destruction, we used to have a community
field where everyone would go and work and the produce will be kept by the
chiefs to give out to the poor. However, people nowadays kept the produce for
themselves.’ (Female Community Participant, in her 40s)
Most rural women’s livelihoods in Chivi District targeting women’s
economic empowerment are not insured from risks such as fires, floods, thefts
and droughts. In some instances where drought affected Chivi District, women
suffered disproportionally, as they are the ones championing rural livelihoods
for improving household income in many households (Mutami &
Chazovachii 2012;
Mutopo 2014).
The socio-economic needs of women are affected as there is no insurance to
cover for dry spells or other unintended consequences of climate change. This
article argues that micro-insuring rural women’s livelihoods is a fundamental
step in promoting women’s economic empowerment and improving the standards of
living in the impoverished district. A study by Bajpai (2014)
advocates for micro-insuring of rural women’s livelihoods, especially when they
start their business which is tantamount to their sustainability. Rural women’s
livelihoods in semi-arid regions often fail to be operational at the early
stages; hence, micro-insuring is essential for growth and expansion. This has
been revealed by a study conducted by Chazovachii and Chuma (2013)
when it revealed that rural livelihoods are not micro-insured against any risk
that may occur such as floods, fires, droughts and earthquakes. To this end,
the lack of micro-insurance is detrimental to rural women’s livelihoods and
economic empowerment in Chivi District.
The need to increase
access to credit facilities
Findings from FGDs in Ward 13 revealed that women in the Chivi
District are hindered by limited access to credit facilities to finance rural
women’s livelihoods. The reason stems from the fact that, as rural women, they
do not have the collateral to convince the bank and other money lenders so that
they extend lines of credit to them. Participants revealed that this has been a
constraining factor for a long time as women clubs often fail to be sustainable
because of lack of access to credit facilities.
One member of the focus group in Ward 13 stated that:
‘We do not have access to loans or money to support our small
businesses as many of us are very poor and do not have assets to approach banks
or other money lending institutions. Because of our poverty, we are afraid to
borrow money since we do not have the collateral security required by the
financial institution for them to recover their loans in the event we fail to
pay back. This is a big challenge to us which disadvantage us to improve our
household income and reduce poverty.’ (Female Village Participant, in her 30s)
From this assertion, lack of credit facilities hinders rural
women’s livelihoods in Chivi; hence, economic empowerment is a challenge. In
the agriculture sector, women lack enough subsidies to plant and grow their
crops in time. This is attributed to the lack of access to credit facilities
from the government; hence, rural women’s livelihoods are not viable because of
cash shortages. The limited access to credit facilities negatively affects
rural women’s livelihoods and discourages women’s economic empowerment. Studies
by Banerjee, Karlan and Zinman (2015)
and Banerjee (2013)
show that microcredit is not a panacea to women’s economic empowerment. These
results contradict the findings of this study that revealed that in Chivi
District, the provision of credit facilities can help reduce poverty and
economically empower women through rural women’s livelihoods. Empirical
evidence from the studies revealed that micro-lenders charge micro-creditors
high interests that have negative impacts on serial borrowers as they get
trapped in debt. Findings of these studies point out further that success is
not guaranteed by borrowing money from micro-lenders. The results of Banerjee
et al (2015)
concur with the findings of this study which show that economic empowerment
through rural women’s livelihoods can be achieved in the event women are given
access to credit facilities. Therefore, micro-crediting can be a strategy for
the emancipation of women through resilient strategies; however, caution needs
to be exercised for the funding from donor agencies or government may have
regulations tied to them which can hinder the economic empowerment of women.
The need to train women
for economic empowerment
Bhavesh (2014)
argues that skills training and education provide women with a basis for
positive change and transformation in societies. Once women are empowered with
skills, they can become innovative in their thoughts and understanding towards
developing self and surrounding. In impoverished regions, the training of rural
women can lead to economic empowerment as they are trained on how to
effectively manage resources and tapping into the opportunities in order to
create a value generation on a micro (household) level and a macro (societal
level) level. Findings of this study have shown that rural women’s livelihoods
are essential for job creation and income regeneration in Chivi District.
Nevertheless, the sustainability of rural women’s livelihoods in Chivi District
is being threatened by limited skills on how to effectively execute business
decisions to improve household income. Although significant contributions made
by agriculture as one of the main rural women’s livelihoods in Chivi were
noticed, limited skills on how to improve on farming methods or how to cope in
times of droughts and flooding. The lack of vocational schools to train and
provide women with business management and entrepreneurship knowledge is a
barrier in Chivi District to achieve women’s economic empowerment. One
participant interviewed remarked that:
‘No organisation has provided training to us on how we can grow
our businesses. Only in agriculture, the Agricultural extension officer visited
once but we were not given enough education on how to grow cash crops which can
increase our household income. Our limited knowledge is a barrier as we venture
into less attractive livelihood programmes …’ (Female Community Participant, in
her late 50s)
A holistic approach to enhance the agrarian and entrepreneurial
education of women is paramount in Zimbabwe in order to achieve women’s
economic empowerment. A study by Akhalwaya and Havnega (2012)
revealed that limited education and training of women discourages women’s
economic empowerment. It has been deduced from the findings of this study that
education is fundamental to women as they can utilise it to advance rural
women’s livelihoods and economic empowerment in Chivi District. Another study
by Tornqvist and Schmitz (2009)
attests to the arguments when it revealed that, vocational education for young
women is vital for accelerating women’s economic empowerment in rural
communities. Young, economically active women have the energy to drive economic
change through sustainable rural livelihoods as they are better positioned to
construct sound decisions. Education instils confidence in women which can be
fundamental for socio-economic transformation and networking in rural women’s
livelihoods.
Mitigating the effects
of climate change to enhance women’s empowerment
Respondents from the interviews revealed that climate change has
serious effects in the Chivi District as it affects rural women’s livelihoods
such as agriculture. According to the respondent, the intense global warming
causes hot temperatures that negatively affect crop production. The women often
do not obtain adequate information or early warnings that can be used as
resilient strategies to cope in the face of climate change. In an FGD, one
participant stated that:
‘The major problem is that we as women we do not know anything
about climate change and how we can prevent it. When cyclones and heat waves
occur our agricultural production is affected. Most families rely on past
seasons yields for seeds (mbeu) and have to scrounge for money to buy
fertilisers. It is quite sad because we have continuously lost our hard earned
produce to erratic climatic conditions either the water will be too much and
drown everything or the sun comes and burns everything.’ (Female, Village
Participant)
Findings of this study revealed that climate change is affecting
water and sanitation as well. This is because agriculture as a rural women’s
livelihood depends on dammed water, so dry spells affect water levels to
sustain agricultural production. Climate change negatively affects rural
women’s livelihoods in Chivi as the majority of women are not aware of how
risks emanating from climate change can be mitigated which often result in poor
crop harvests in the agriculture sector. These findings are in conjunction with
a study conducted by Anjani et al. (2013), which revealed that the lack of
awareness on the causes and consequences of climate change is an obstacle to
rural women as they are not aware of the dangers and adaptation mechanism on
climate change. These findings show the significance of information on climate
change among rural women. This article, therefore, advocates for early warning
systems for rural women in semi-arid regions, so that they know which
livelihood strategy to embark on depending on the weather or climate awareness
information.
Provision of modern
technology to stimulate rural women’s livelihoods
The global technological inventions have engulfed the world of
business and economic growth; hence, organisations and individuals need to keep
abreast of such latest developments. The findings of the study revealed that in
Chivi District, the majority of rural women are not well capacitated on how to
use modern technological devices such as computers and smartphones to conduct
extensive marketing for their products. The use of technology increases women’s
productivity and decision-making power in their livelihood strategies. Findings
of this study revealed further that women in Chivi are lagging behind in terms
of how to use modern technological devices to increase their productivity and
access to competitive markets. The limited skills and lack of awareness on how
to effectively utilise the aforementioned technological devices are a barrier
to women’s economic empowerment. One female participant lamented:
‘We do not have access to technology such as computers that can be
useful for improving marketing and access to information on our livelihoods. We
have made several requests to the government and stakeholders to assist us
without any success. Anyhow, we need technical knowledge on how to use these
modern machines.’ (Female Village Participant, early 30s)
Studies by WFP (2014)
and World Bank (2014)
recognised that when there are modern technological devices to improve
agriculture, women suffer by using handmade tools which are not only
inefficient but unproductive in an effort to reduce poverty levels. The article
argues, therefore, that increased awareness of Information and Communication
Technology services (ICTs) and their implementation can help bridge the
socio-economic gap in Chivi District on the same note empowering women to
sustain their livelihoods.
Limitations of the study
The study was limited by the harsh geographical area of Chivi
District as many of the rural women’s livelihoods were in remote areas that are
inaccessible. Insufficient funding was a challenge to this study for the
researcher to reach all rural livelihood strategies in the district. To
mitigate these obstacles, the researchers purposively selected rural women’s
livelihoods that were in selected accessible villages of Chivi District.
Conclusion and
recommendations
The study has shown that rural women’s livelihoods have the
potential to empower women economically in semi-arid regions of Zimbabwe.
Nevertheless, a myriad of factors affect rural women’s livelihoods and hinder
economic empowerment. The article observes the severe lack of competitive
markets that have compromised the profit margins of rural women. The abundance
of rural livelihoods calls for ready markets; hence, their absence led rural
women to look for local markets that are not profitable. The study ascertains
that the lack of access to credit facilities is the main factor behind poverty
among women in Chivi District. Presently, there are limited financial
institutions that are willing to sponsor rural women to improve their
livelihoods. The lack of training on how to use modern technological devices
such as computers and internet is a setback as rural women are not exposed to
external markets; hence, limited networking hinders economic empowerment. If
empowered with necessary skills, women can self-sustain themselves through
livelihood strategies in the process of increasing household income. The
researchers concluded that rural women’s livelihoods in Chivi District can be
successful when they are trained on how to cope with changes brought by climate
change and have access to markets and credit facilities.
Based on the conclusions drawn from this study, rural women in the
Chivi District and the Government of Zimbabwe can benefit from this study in
the event they adopt the recommendations. As a way of increasing access to
competitive markets, communication channels between rural women in Chivi should
be enhanced through the use of modern technological devices such as cell
phones, computers, televisions and radios. This helps in identifying ready
markets where women can sell their products and encourage women to diversify
their rural women livelihoods and tap into other resilient strategies to
increase women’s economic empowerment. The study further recommends the
Government of Zimbabwe to increase access to credit facilities. This can be
done by setting up other agricultural banks apart from the Agricultural Bank
(AGRIBANK) that target women from impoverished regions to access credit
facilities as long as they have sound livelihood projects. Extending the line
of credit to rural women to enable them to finance rural livelihood projects,
such as irrigation agriculture, that requires extensive funding to be viable.
Interested stakeholders can also assist with adequate funding towards
micro-insuring rural women’s livelihoods to achieve women’s economic
empowerment. The study further recommends that the government provide
vocational schools in Chivi where women can be trained on skills to engage in
agriculture among other rural women’s livelihoods. Education and training of
women will enable them to network with other women associations which is
imperative for information sharing on how women can improve household income in
Chivi District through rural women’s livelihood strategies. In order to
mitigate the effects of climate change to enhance women empowerment, the
government can conduct early warning systems through the meteorological
department that are imperative to warn women in semi-arid regions who engage in
agriculture on how they should cope in times of risks such as floods or intense
heat conditions. Further quantitative and qualitative studies can be conducted
to assess the numbers and experiences of rural women’s livelihoods that are
affected by climate change and how the government and stakeholders can
intervene to help them.
Acknowledgements
We acknowledge the Chivi Rural District Council in Zimbabwe for
granting permission to conduct this study and the study women for their
participation.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no financial or personal
relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this
article.
Authors’ contributions
H.J. introduced the manuscript, wrote the problem statement,
background, literature review, theoretical concepts and gathered data. E.S.
conceptualised, drafted and revised the original manuscript, and analysed and
interpreted the data.
Footnotes
How to cite this article: Jaka, H. &
Shava, E., 2018, ‘Resilient rural women’s livelihoods for poverty alleviation
and economic empowerment in semi-arid regions of Zimbabwe’, Jàmbá:
Journal of Disaster Risk Studies 10(1), a524. https://doi.org/10.4102/jamba.v10i1.524
References
1. Akhalwaya A. &
Havenga W., 2012, ‘The Barriers that hinder the success of women entrepreneurs
in Gauteng. South Africa’, International Journal of Sustainable
Development 3(5), 11–22, viewed 26 January 2017 from http://www.ssrn.com/link/OIDA-Intl-Journal-Sustainable-Dev.html [Google Scholar]
2. Ajani E.N., Onwubuya
E.A. & Mgbenka R.N., 2013, ‘Approaches to economic empowerment of rural
women for climate change mitigation and adaptation: Implications for policy’, International
Journal of Advance Agricultural Research 1(2013), 37–42, viewed 02
February 2017 from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/9001/1ec94f8c77eaecb0163df9311794ce087e1f.pdf [Google Scholar]
3. Banerjee A., Karlan D.
& Zinman J., 2015, ‘Six randomized evaluations of microcredit: Introduction
and further steps’, American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 7(1).
1–21. 10.1257/app.20140287 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
4. Banerjee A.V, 2013, ‘Microcredit
under the microscope: What have we learned in the past two decades, and what do
we need to know?’, Annual Review of Economics 5(1), 487–519.
10.1146/annurev-economics-082912-110220 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
5. Bajpai G.C, 2014, ‘African
women entrepreneur: Problems, challenges and future opportunities’, International
Journal of Managerial Studies and Research 2(5), 17–22, viewed 26
January 2017, from https://www.arcjournals.org/pdfs/ijmsr/v2-i5/3.pdf [Google Scholar]
6. Batterbury S.P.J, 2008,
‘Sustainable livelihoods: Still being sought, ten years on’, paper presented at
Sustainable Livelihoods Framework: Ten years of researching the poor, African
Environments Programme workshop, Oxford University Centre for the Environment,
24 January pp. 15, viewed 02 February 2017, from https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Simon_Batterbury/publication/237467916_Sustainable_livelihoods_still_being_sought_ten_years_on/links/55a2ab4a08aea54aa81567fd/Sustainable-livelihoods-still-being-sought-ten-years-on.pdf [Google Scholar]
7. Bird K. & Shepherd
A., 2003, ‘Livelihoods and chronic poverty in Semi-Arid Zimbabwe’, World
Development 31(3), 591–610. 10.1016/S0305-750X(02)00220-6 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
8. Bhavesh J.H.A, 2014, ‘Education:
An instrument to enhance women empowerment and inclusive growth’, Issues
and Ideas in Education 2(1), 17–23, viewed 23 March 2017, from http://dspace.chitkara.edu.in/jspui/bitstream/1/158/1/21002_IIE_Bhavesh.pdf. [Google Scholar]
9. Birkmann J, 2006, ‘Measuring
vulnerability to promote disaster-resilient societies: Conceptual frameworks
and definitions’, Measuring vulnerability to natural hazards: Towards
disaster resilient societies 1, 9–54, viewed 02 February 2017,
from https://fenix.tecnico.ulisboa.pt/downloadFile/282093452031945/Joern_I.pdf [Google Scholar]
10.
Boyatzis R.E, 1998, Transforming qualitative information:
Thematic analysis and code development, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA. [Google Scholar]
11.
Bryceson D.F, 2002, ‘The Scramble in Africa: Reorienting rural
livelihoods’, World Development 30(5), 725–739, viewed from
10.1016/S0305-750X(02)00006-2 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
12.
Campbell B.M., Jeffrey S., Kozanayi W., Luckert M., Mutamba M.
& Zindi C., 2002, Household livelihoods in semi-arid regions:
Options and constraints, CIFOR, Jakarta, Indonesia, viewed 02 February
2017, from https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/57a08d3f40f0b652dd001860/R7304Bk.pdf [Google Scholar]
13.
Charman A, 2008, ‘Empowering women through livelihoods orientated
agricultural service provision: A consideration of evidence from Southern
Africa: Research Paper’, United Nations University (UNU), UNU-WIDER, Helsinki,
viewed 22 February 2017, from https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/63398/1/559005695.pdf [Google Scholar]
14.
Chazovachii B. & Chuma M., 2013, ‘Rural highway service
centres and rural livelihoods diversity: A case of Ngundu halt in Zimbabwe’, Russian
Journal of Agricultural and Socio-Economic Sciences 17(5), 13–19. https://doi.org/10.18551/rjoas.2013-05.03 [Google Scholar]
15.
Chirau T.J., Nkambule S. & Mupambwa G., 2014, ‘Rural
livelihoods in Zimbabwe: Heterogeneity, diversification and vulnerability’, International
Journal of Innovation and Applied Studies 5(1), 5–15. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.674.6832&rep=rep1&type=pdf [Google Scholar]
16.
Creswell J.W, 2013, Qualitative inquiry and research
design: Choosing among five approaches, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA. [Google Scholar]
17.
Davies M., Béné C., Arnall A., Tanner T., Newsham A. & Coirolo
C., 2013, ‘Promoting resilient livelihoods through adaptive social protection:
Lessons from 124 programmes in South Asia’, Development Policy Review 31(1),
27–58. 10.1111/j.1467-7679.2013.00600.x [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
18.
Ejigu M, 2008, ‘Toward energy and livelihoods security in Africa:
Smallholder production and processing of bioenergy as a strategy’, Natural
Resources Forum 32(2),152–162. 10.1111/j.1467-7679.2013.00600.x [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
19.
Ellis F, 2000, ‘The determinants of rural livelihood
diversification in developing countries’, Journal of Agricultural
Economics 51(2), 289–302. 10.1111/j.1477-9552.2000.tb01229.x [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
20.
Ellis F. & Freeman H.A., 2004, ‘Rural livelihoods and poverty
reduction strategies in four African countries’, Journal of Development
Studies 40(4), 1–30. 10.1080/00220380410001673175 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
21.
FAO , 2011, The state of food and agriculture. Women in
agriculture, closing the gender gap for development, Food and Agriculture
Organisation of the United Nations, Rome. [Google Scholar]
22.
FAO, IFAD & ILO , 2010, Gender dimensions of
agricultural and rural employment: Differentiated pathways out of poverty,
Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, International Fund
for Agricultural Development and International Labour Office, Rome. [Google Scholar]
23.
Folke C., Carpenter S., Elmqvist T., Gunderson L., Holling C.S.
& Walker B., 2002, ‘Resilience and sustainable development: Building
adaptive capacity in a World of transformations’, Ambio 31(5),
437–440. 10.1579/0044-7447-31.5.437 [PubMed]
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
24.
Fonchingong C.C, 2005, ‘Negotiating livelihoods beyond Beijing:
The burden of women food vendors in the informal economy of Limbe, Cameroon*’, International
Social Science Journal 57(184), 243–253.
10.1111/j.1468-2451.2005.00548.x [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
25.
Fook A, 2011, Gender, IFIs, and Food Security. Gender
Action, Gender Action, Washington DC, viewed 12 March 2017, from http://www.genderaction.org/publications/fdsec/primer.pdf [Google Scholar]
26.
Frost P., Campbell B., Luckert M., Mutamba M., Mandondo A. &
Kozanayi W., 2007, ‘In search of improved rural livelihoods in semi-arid
regions through local management of natural resources: Lessons from case
studies in Zimbabwe’, World Development 35(11), 1961–1974.
10.1016/j.worlddev.2006.11.012 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
27.
Gabrielsson S. & Ramasar V., 2013, ‘Widows: Agents of change
in a climate of water uncertainty’, Journal of Cleaner Production 60(0),
34–42. 10.1016/j.jclepro.2012.01.034 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
28.
Gangata K. & Matavire E.H.M., 2013, ‘Challenges facing SMEs in
accessing finance from financial institutions: The case of Bulawayo, Zimbabwe’, International
Journal of Applied Research and Studies 2(7), 1–10. [Google Scholar]
29.
Garikipati S, 2010, ‘Microcredit and women’s empowerment:
Understanding the ‘impact paradox’ with particular reference to South India’,
in Chant S. (ed.), The international handbook of gender and poverty: Concepts,
research, policy, pp. 736–742, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, Northampton. [Google Scholar]
30.
Gerbens-Leenes W. & Nonhebel S., 2005, ‘Food and land use. The
influence of consumption patterns on the use of agricultural resources’, Appetite 45(1),
24–31. 10.1016/j.appet.2005.01.011 [PubMed]
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
31.
Gerhardt K. & Nemarundwe N., 2006, ‘Participatory planting and
management of indigenous trees: Lessons from Chivi District, Zimbabwe’, Agriculture
and Human Values 23(2), 231–243. 10.1007/s10460-005-6109-2 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
32.
Gillham B, 2000, Case study research method,
Continuum, London and New York. [Google Scholar]
33.
Gladwin C.H., Thomson A.M., Peterson J.S. & Anderson A.S.,
2001, ‘Addressing food security in Africa via multiple livelihood strategies of
women farmers’, Food Policy 26(2), 177–207.
10.1016/S0306-9192(00)00045-2 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
34.
Government of Sweden , 2010, On equal footing: Policy for
gender equality and the rights and role of women in Sweden’s international
development cooperation 2010–2015, Department for Development Policy, Press
and Communication Department and Ministry for Foreign Affairs, Sweden. [Google Scholar]
35.
Gwimbi P, 2009, ‘Linking rural community livelihoods to resilience
building in flood risk reduction in Zimbabwe’, Jamba: Journal of
Disaster Risk Studies 2(1), 71–79. 10.4102/jamba.v2i1.16 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
36.
Gulsecen S. & Kubat A., 2006, ‘Teaching ICT to teacher
candidates using PBL: A qualitative and quantitative evaluation’, Educational
Technology & Society 9(2), 96–106, viewed 23 June 2017, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/jeductechsoci.9.2.96 [Google Scholar]
37.
Hak T., Janouskova S. & Moldan B., 2016, ‘Sustainable
Development Goals: A need for relevant indicators’, Ecological
Indicators 60, 565–573. 10.1016/j.ecolind.2015.08.003 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
38.
Hermann S., Welsch M., Segerstrom R.E., Howells M.I., Young C.,
Alfstad T. et al. , 2012, ‘Climate, land, energy and water (CLEW) interlinkages
in Burkina Faso: An analysis of agricultural intensification and bioenergy
production’, Natural Resources Forum 36(4), 245–262.
10.1111/j.1477-8947.2012.01463.x [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
39.
Hill C, 2011, ‘Enabling rural women’s economic empowerment:
Institutions, opportunities, and participation’, UN Women in cooperation with
FAO, IFAD and WFP Expert Group Meeting, Accra, Ghana, 20–23 September 2011,
viewed 22 March 2017, from http://www.soon-young.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Hill-BP-1-EGM-RW-Sep-2011_CH.pdf [Google Scholar]
40.
Hoddinott J, 2006, ‘Shocks and their consequences across and
within households in rural Zimbabwe’, The Journal of Development
Studies 42(2), 301–321. 10.1080/00220380500405501 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
41.
Holling C.S, 1973, ‘Resilience and stability of ecological systems’, Annual
Review of Ecology and Systematics 4(1), 1–23.
10.1146/annurev.es.04.110173.000245 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
42.
Johnson M.P, 2006, ‘Decision models for the location of community
corrections centers’, Environment and Planning B-Planning & Design 33(3),
393–412. 10.1068/b3125 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
43.
Kabeer N. & Natali L., 2013, ‘Gender equality and economic
growth: Is there a win–win?’, IDS Working Paper 417, Institute of Development
Studies (IDS), Brighton, UK, viewed 22 February 2017, from https://www.ids.ac.uk/files/dmfile/Wp417.pdf [Google Scholar]
44.
Klein R.J.T., Nicholls R.J. & Thomalla F., 2003, ‘Resilience
to natural hazards: How useful is this concept?’, Environmental Hazards 5(1),
35–45. 10.1016/j.hazards.2004.02.001 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
45.
Kristjanson P., Waters-Bayer A., Johnson N., Tipilda A., Njuki J.,
Baltenweck I. et al. , 2014, ‘Livestock and women’s livelihoods’, in Quisumbing
A.R., Meinzen-Dick R., Raney T.L., Croppenstedt A., Behrman J.A. & Peterman
A. (eds.), Gender in agriculture: Closing the knowledge gap, pp.
209–233, Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht. [Google Scholar]
46.
Kumar R, 2011, Research methodology: A step by step guide
for beginners, Sage, London. [Google Scholar]
47.
Lin B.B, 2011, ‘Resilience in agriculture through crop
diversification: Adaptive management for environmental change’, BioScience 61(3),
183–193. 10.1525/bio.2011.61.3.4 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
48.
Makura-Paradza G.G, 2010, Single women, land and
livelihood vulnerability in a communal area in Zimbabwe, Wageningen
University, Netherlands. [Google Scholar]
49.
Maleksaeidi H. & Karami E., 2013, ‘Social-Ecological
resilience and sustainable agriculture under water scarcity’, Agroecology
and Sustainable Food Systems 37(3), 262–290.
10.1080/10440046.2012.746767 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
50.
Maroyi A, 2009, ‘Traditional homegardens and rural livelihoods in
Nhema, Zimbabwe: A sustainable agroforestry system’, International
Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology 16(1), 1–8.
10.1080/13504500902745895 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
51.
Matondi P, 2011, Livelihoods diversity study in Zimbabwe,
Oxfarm Harare, Zimbabwe. [Google Scholar]
52.
McKee K, 1989, ‘Microlevel strategies for supporting livelihoods,
employment, and income generation of poor women in the third world: The
challenge of significance’, World Development 17(7), 993–1006.
10.1016/0305-750X(89)90163-0 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
53.
Mortimore M, 2009, ‘Dryland opportunities: A new paradigm for
people, ecosystems and development’, UNDP, Nairobi. Kenya, viewed 26 March
2018, from http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/G02572.pdf [Google Scholar]
54.
Mudimu G, 2002, Zimbabwe’s food security policy and
strategy: Country position paper for the FAO World Food Summit, Overseas
Development Institute, London. [Google Scholar]
55.
Mutami C. & Chazovachii B., 2012, ‘Effective livelihood
strategies in distressed environments: The case of Mudzi District of Zimbabwe’, Current
Research Journal of Social Sciences 4(5), 362–371, viewed 23 May 2017,
from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/8a2b/d60a26f21b7604cee1333d34ea96dd5e0ac0.pdf [Google Scholar]
56.
Mutopo P, 2011, ‘Women’s struggles to access and control land and
livelihoods after fast track land reform in Mwenezi District, Zimbabwe’, The
Journal of Peasant Studies 38(5), 1021–1046.
10.1080/03066150.2011.635787 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
57.
Mutopo P, 2014, ‘Belonging and rural livelihoods: Women’s access
to land and non-permanent mobility at Merrivale farm, Mwenezi district,
Zimbabwe’, Erdkunde 68(3), 197–207.
10.3112/erdkunde.2014.03.04 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
58.
Ncube A, 2012, ‘Impact of livelihood diversification on household
food security: The case of Hurungwe District, Zimbabwe’, University of South
Africa, Masters dissertation. [Google Scholar]
59.
Nelson V. & Stathers T., 2009, ‘Resilience, power, culture,
and climate: A case study from semi-arid Tanzania, and new research directions’, Gender
& Development 17(1), 81–94. 10.1080/13552070802696946 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
60.
Neubert S., Komm M. & Krumsiek A., 2013, ‘Agricultural
development in a changing climate in Zambia: Increasing resilience to climate
change and economic shocks in crop production’, SUB Hamburg Carl von Ossietzky,
Hamburg, viewed 12 April 2017, from http://edoc.vifapol.de/opus/volltexte/2013/4396 [Google Scholar]
61.
O’Laughlin B, 1998, ‘Missing men? The debate over rural poverty
and women-headed households in Southern Africa’, The Journal of Peasant
Studies 25(2), 1–48. 10.1080/03066159808438665 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
62.
Oberhauser A.M., Mandel J.L. & Hapke H.M., 2004, ‘Gendered
livelihoods in diverse global contexts: An introduction’, Gender, Place
& Culture 11(2), 205–208. 10.1080/0966369X.2013.810602 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
63.
OECD. , 2010, Accelerating progress towards the MDGs
through pro-poor growth: Policy messages from the DAC Network on Poverty
Reduction, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development,
Paris. [Google Scholar]
64.
Ogunlela Y.I. & Mukhtar A.A., 2009, ‘Gender issues in
agriculture and rural development in Nigeria: The role of women’, Humanity
& Social Sciences Journal 4(1), 19–30. [Google Scholar]
65.
Pelling M, 2011, Adaptation to climate change: From
resilience to transformation, Routledge, London. [Google Scholar]
66.
Perrings C, 2006, ‘Resilience and sustainable development’, Environment
and Development Economics 11(4), 417–427. 10.1017/S1355770X06003020 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
67.
Ritchie J. & Lewis J., 2010, Qualitative research
principle: A guide for social science students and researchers, Sage,
London. [Google Scholar]
68.
Rockström J, 2003, ‘Resilience building and water demand
management for drought mitigation’, Physics and Chemistry of the Earth,
Parts A/B/C 28(20), 869–877. 10.1016/j.pce.2003.08.009 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
69.
Sachs J.D, 2012, ‘From Millennium Development Goals to Sustainable
Development Goals’, The Lancet, 379(9832), 2206–2211.
10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60685-0 [PubMed]
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
70.
Scoones I, 1996, Hazards and opportunities: Farming
livelihoods in dryland Africa, Lessons from Zimbabwe, Zed Books,
London. [Google Scholar]
71.
Scoones I, 1998, Sustainable rural livelihoods: A
framework for analysis, Institute of Development Studies, Sussex. [Google Scholar]
72.
Scoones I, 2009, ‘Livelihoods perspectives and rural development’, The
Journal of Peasant Studies 36(1), 171–196. 10.1080/03066150902820503 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
73.
Scoones I., Chibudu C., Chikura S., Jeranyama P. & Machaka D.,
1996, Hazards and opportunities: Farming livelihoods in dryland Africa,
Lessons from Zimbabwe, Zed Books, London. [Google Scholar]
74.
Shackleton C.M., Shackleton S.E. & Cousins B., 2001, ‘The role
of land-based strategies in rural livelihoods: The contribution of arable
production, animal husbandry and natural resource harvesting in communal areas
in South Africa’, Development Southern Africa 18(5), 581–604.
10.1080/03768350120097441 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
75.
SOFA Team & Cheryl D, 2011, ‘The role of women in
agriculture’, ESA working paper no. 11–02, March 2011, pp. 2–17, Italy,
Rome. [Google Scholar]
76.
Törnqvist A. & Schmitz C., 2009, ‘Women’s economic
empowerment: Scope for Sida’s engagement’, Sida, viewed 21 May 2018, from http://www.enterprisedevelopment.org/page/download?id=1524 [Google Scholar]
77.
UNDAW & UNIFEM. , 2001, ‘The situation of rural women within
the context of globalisation’, Report of the expert group meeting 4–8 June 2001
Ulaanbaater, Mongolia, United Nations, New York. [Google Scholar]
78.
UNDAW & UNDESA 2008, Women 2000 and beyond, the role of
men and boys in achieving gender equality, United Nations, New York. [Google Scholar]
79.
Vercillo S, 2016, ‘Sustainable livelihoods and rural development’, Canadian
Journal of African Studies / Revue Canadienne des Études Africaines 50(2),
326–328. 10.1080/02255189.2016.1174673 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
80.
WFP , 2015, ‘Zimbabwe integrated context analysis’, World Food
Programme, viewed 22 May 2017, from http://documents.wfp.org/stellent/groups/public/documents/ena/wfp281727.pdf?iframe [Google Scholar]
81.
WFP , 2014, ‘Zimbabwe: Results of exploratory food and nutrition
security analysis’, WFP, Harare, viewed 02 April 2017, from http://documents.wfp.org/stellent/groups/public/documents/ena/wfp269095.pdf?iframe [Google Scholar]
82.
World Bank , 2007, Global monitoring report 2007 – Millennium
Development Goals: Confronting the challenges of gender equality and fragile
states, World Bank, Washington DC. [Google Scholar]
83.
World Bank , 2014, ‘Brief on the World Bank Group’s work on land
and food security, viewed 09 May 2018, from http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/agriculture/brief/land-and-foodsecurity
84.
Zaidi N.H. & Munir A., 2014, ‘Participation of women in
sugarcane farming system: A case study of Bijnor District, Western Uttar
Pradesh’, Economic Affairs 59(3), 449–457.
10.5958/0976-4666.2014.00012.6 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
85.
Zeitoun M, 2011, ‘The global web of national water security’, Global
Policy 2(3), 286–296. 10.1111/j.1758-5899.2011.00097.x [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
86.
Zimstats, Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency , 2012, Census
2012 provincial report Masvingo, Causeway, Harare, Government
Printer. [Google Scholar]
87.
ZimVAC. , 2017, Zimbabwe Vulnerability Assessment
Committee 2017, Rural livelihoods assessment report, Food and Nutrition
Council, Harare. [Google Scholar]
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6191674/
