Motivation

Motivation is a theoretical construct used to explain behavior. It represents the reasons for people's actions, desires, and needs. Motivation can also be defined as one's direction to behavior, or what causes a person to want to repeat a behavior and vice versa.[1] A motive is what prompts the person to act in a certain way, or at least develop an inclination for specific behavior.[2] According to Maehr and Meyer, "Motivation is a word that is part of the popular culture as few other psychological concepts are"
Types of theories and models

Motivation theories can be classified on a number of bases.

Natural vs. Rational based on whether the underlying theory of human Cognition is based on natural forces (drives, needs, desires) or some kind of rationality (instrumentality, meaningfulness, self-identity).
Content vs. Process based on whether the focus is on the content ("what") motivates vs process ("how") motivation takes place.

Psychological theories and models

Motivation can be conceived of as a cycle in which thoughts influence behaviors, behaviors drive performance, performance impacts thoughts, and the cycle begins again. Each stage of the cycle is composed of many dimensions including attitudes, beliefs, intentions, effort, and withdrawal which can all affect the motivation that an individual experiences.
Rational motivations

The idea that human beings are rational and human behavior is guided by reason is an old one. However, recent research (on Satisficing for example) has significantly undermined the idea of homo economicus or of perfect rationality in favour of a more bounded rationality. The field of behavioural economics is particularly concerned with the limits of rationality in economic agents.[4]
Incentive theories: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

Motivation can be divided into two different theories known as Intrinsic (internal) motivation and Extrinsic (external) motivation.
Intrinsic motivation

Intrinsic motivation has been studied since the early 1970s. Intrinsic motivation is the self-desire to seek out new things and new challenges, to analyze one's capacity, to observe and to gain knowledge.[5] It is driven by an interest or enjoyment in the task itself, and exists within the individual rather than relying on external pressures or a desire for reward. The phenomenon of intrinsic motivation was first acknowledged within experimental studies of animal behavior. In these studies, it was evident that the organisms would engage in playful and curiosity driven behaviors in the absence of reward. Intrinsic motivation is a natural motivational tendency and is a critical element in cognitive, social, and physical development.[6] Students who are intrinsically motivated are more likely to engage in the task willingly as well as work to improve their skills, which will increase their capabilities.[7] Students are likely to be intrinsically motivated if they:

attribute their educational results to factors under their own control, also known as autonomy or locus of control
believe they have the skills to be effective agents in reaching their desired goals, also known as self-efficacy beliefs
are interested in mastering a topic, not just in achieving good grades

An example of intrinsic motivation is when an employee becomes an IT professional because he or she wants to learn about how computer users interact with computer networks. The employee has the intrinsic motivation to gain more knowledge[8]

Traditionally, researchers thought of motivations to use computer systems to be primarily driven by extrinsic purposes; however, many modern systems have their use driven primarily by intrinsic motivations.[9] Examples of such systems used primarily to fulfill users’ intrinsic motivations, include online gaming, virtual worlds, online shopping, learning/education, online dating, digital music repositories, social networking, online pornography, gamified systems, and general gamification. Even traditional management information systems (e.g., ERP, CRM) are being ‘gamified’ such that both extrinsic and intrinsic motivations must increasingly be considered.

Advantages: Intrinsic motivation can be long-lasting and self-sustaining. Efforts to build this kind of motivation are also typically efforts at promoting student learning. Such efforts often focus on the subject rather than rewards or punishments.

Disadvantages: Efforts at fostering intrinsic motivation can be slow to affect behavior and can require special and lengthy preparation. Students are individuals, so a variety of approaches may be needed to motivate different students. It is often helpful to know what interests one’s students in order to connect these interests with the subject matter. This requires getting to know one’s students. Also, it helps if the instructor is interested in the subject.[10]
Extrinsic motivation

Extrinsic motivation refers to the performance of an activity in order to attain a desired outcome and it is the opposite of intrinsic motivation.[5] Extrinsic motivation comes from influences outside of the individual. In extrinsic motivation, the harder question to answer is where do people get the motivation to carry out and continue to push with persistence. Usually extrinsic motivation is used to attain outcomes that a person wouldn't get from intrinsic motivation.[11] Common extrinsic motivations are rewards (for example money or grades) for showing the desired behavior, and the threat of punishment following misbehavior. Competition is an extrinsic motivator because it encourages the performer to win and to beat others, not simply to enjoy the intrinsic rewards of the activity. A cheering crowd and the desire to win a trophy are also extrinsic incentives.[12]

Social psychological research has indicated that extrinsic rewards can lead to overjustification and a subsequent reduction in intrinsic motivation. In one study demonstrating this effect, children who expected to be (and were) rewarded with a ribbon and a gold star for drawing pictures spent less time playing with the drawing materials in subsequent observations than children who were assigned to an unexpected reward condition.[13] However, another study showed that third graders who were rewarded with a book showed more reading behavior in the future, implying that some rewards do not undermine intrinsic motivation.[14] While the provision of extrinsic rewards might reduce the desirability of an activity, the use of extrinsic constraints, such as the threat of punishment, against performing an activity has actually been found to increase one's intrinsic interest in that activity. In one study, when children were given mild threats against playing with an attractive toy, it was found that the threat actually served to increase the child's interest in the toy, which was previously undesirable to the child in the absence of threat.[15]
Behaviorist theories

While many theories on motivation have a mentalistic perspective, behaviorists focus only on observable behavior and theories founded on experimental evidence. In the view of behaviorism, motivation is understood as a question about what factors cause, prevent, or withhold various behaviors, while the question of, for instance, conscious motives would be ignored.

Behaviorists are interested in the variables that affect the type, intensity, frequency and duration of observable behavior. Through the basic research of such scientists as Pavlov, Watson and Skinner, several basic mechanisms that govern behavior have been identified. The most important of these are classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
Classical and operant conditioning

In classical (or respondent) conditioning, behavior is understood as responses triggered by certain environmental or physical stimuli. They can be unconditioned, such as in-born reflexes, or learned through the pairing of an unconditioned stimulus with a different stimulus, which then becomes a conditioned stimulus. In relation to motivation, classical conditioning might be seen as one explanation as to why an individual performs certain responses and behaviors in certain situations.[16][17]

In operant conditioning, the type and frequency of behavior is determined mainly by its consequences. If a certain behavior, in the presence of a certain stimulus, is followed by a desirable consequence (a reinforcer), the emitted behavior will increase in frequency in the future, in the presence of the stimulus that preceded the behavior (or a similar one). Conversely, if the behavior is followed by something undesirable (a punisher), the behavior is less likely to occur in the present of the stimulus. In a similar manner, removal of a stimulus directly following the behavior might either increase or decrease the frequency of that behavior in the future (negative reinforcement or punishment).[16][17]

The strength of reinforcement or punishment is dependent on schedule and timing. A reinforcer or punisher affects the future frequency of a behavior most strongly if it occurs within seconds of the behavior. A behavior that is reinforced intermittently, at unpredictable intervals, will be more robust and persistent, compared to one that is reinforced every time the behavior is performed.[16][17]

In addition to these basic principles, antecedent factors also affect behavior. Behavior is punished or reinforced in the context of whatever stimuli were present just before the behavior was performed, which means that a particular behavior might not be affected in every context, just because it was punished or reinforced in a particular one.[16][17]

The various mechanisms of operant conditioning may be used to understand the motivation for various behaviors by examining what happens just after the behavior (the consequence), in what context the behavior is performed or not performed (the antecedent), and under what circumstances (motivating operators).[16][17]
Motivating operations

Motivating operations, MOs, relate to the field of motivation in that they help improve understanding aspects of behavior that are not covered by operant conditioning. In operant conditioning, the function of the reinforcer is to influence future behavior. The presence of a stimulus believed to function as a reinforcer does not according to this terminology explain the current behavior of an organism – only previous instances of reinforcement of that behavior (in the same or similar situations) do. Through the behavior-altering effect of MOs, it is possible to affect current behavior of an individual, giving another piece of the puzzle of motivation.

Motivating operations are factors that affect learned behavior in a certain context. MOs have two effects: a value-altering effect, which increases or decreases the efficiency of a reinforcer, and a behavior-altering effect, which modifies learned behavior that has previously been punished or reinforced by a particular stimulus.[16]

When a motivating operation causes an increase in the effectiveness of a reinforcer, or amplifies a learned behavior in some way (such as increasing frequency, intensity, duration or speed of the behavior), it functions as an establishing operation, EO. A common example of this would be food deprivation, which functions as an EO in relation to food: the food-deprived organism will perform behaviors previously related to the acquisition of food more intensely, frequently, longer, or faster in the presence of food, and those behaviors would be especially strongly reinforced.[16]

Conversely, a motivating operation that causes a decrease in the effectiveness of a reinforcer, or diminishes a learned behavior related to the reinforcer, functions as an abolishing operation, AO. Again using the example of food, satiation of food prior to the presentation of a food stimulus would produce a decrease on food-related behaviors, and diminish or completely abolish the reinforcing effect of acquiring and ingesting the food.[16]
Motivation and psychotherapy

Motivation lies at the core of many behaviorist approaches to psychological treatment. A person with autism-spectrum disorder is seen as lacking motivation to perform socially relevant behaviors – social stimuli are not as reinforcing for people with autism compared to other people. Depression is understood as a lack of reinforcement (especially positive reinforcement) leading to extinction of behavior in the depressed individual. A patient with specific phobia is not motivated to seek out the phobic stimulus because it acts as a punisher, and is over-motivated to avoid it (negative reinforcement). In accordance, therapies have been designed to address these problems, such as EIBI and CBT for major depression and specific phobia.
Incentive theory

Incentive theory is a specific theory of motivation, derived partly from behaviorist principles of reinforcement, which concerns an incentive or motive to do something. The most common incentive would be a reward. Rewards can be tangible or intangible, and is presented generally after the occurrence of the action or behavior that one is trying to correct or cause to happen again. This is done by associating positive meaning to the behavior and or action. Studies show that if the person receives the reward immediately, the effect is greater, and decreases as delay lengthens.[18] Repetitive action-reward combination can cause the action to become a habit.[18] Motivation comes from two sources: oneself, and other people. (Refer to Intrinsic and Extrinsic motivation for more information)

"Reinforcers and reinforcement principles of behavior differ from the hypothetical construct of reward." A reinforcer is anything that follows an action, with the intentions that the action will now occur more frequently. From this perspective, the concept of distinguishing between intrinsic and extrinsic forces is irrelevant.

Incentive theory in psychology treats motivation and behavior of the individual as they are influenced by beliefs, such as engaging in activities that are expected to be profitable. Incentive theory is promoted by behavioral psychologists, such as B.F. Skinner. Incentive theory is especially supported by Skinner in his philosophy of Radical behaviorism, meaning that a person's actions always has social ramifications: and if actions are positively received people are more likely to act in this manner, or if negatively received people are less likely to act in this manner.

Incentive theory distinguishes itself from other motivation theories, such as drive theory, in the direction of the motivation. In incentive theory, stimuli "attract", a person towards them, and push them towards the stimulus. In terms of behaviorism, incentive theory involves positive reinforcement: the reinforcing stimulus has been conditioned to make the person happier. As opposed to in drive theory, which involves negative reinforcement: a stimulus has been associated with the removal of the punishment—the lack of homeostasis in the body. For example, a person has come to know that if they eat when hungry, it will eliminate that negative feeling of hunger, or if they drink when thirsty, it will eliminate that negative feeling of thirst.[18]
Push and pull

Push motivations are those where people push themselves towards their goals or to achieve something, such as the desire for escape, rest and relaxation, prestige, health and fitness, adventure, and social interaction.[19]
Door with both push and pull signs.jpg

However, with push motivation it's also easy to get discouraged when there are obstacles present in the path of achievement. Push motivation acts as a willpower and people's willpower is only as strong as the desire behind the willpower.[20] Additionally, a study has been conducted on social networking and its push and pull effects. One thing that is mentioned is "Regret and dissatisfaction correspond to push factors because regret and dissatisfaction are the negative factors that compel users to leave their current service provider."[21] So from reading this, we now know that Push motivations can also be a negative force. In this case, that negative force is regret and dissatisfaction.

Pull motivation is the opposite of push. It is a type of motivation that is much stronger. "Some of the factors are those that emerge as a result of the attractiveness of a destination as it is perceived by those with the propensity to travel. They include both tangible resources, such as beaches, recreation facilities, and cultural attractions, and traveler's perceptions and expectation, such as novelty, benefit expectation, and marketing image."[19] Pull motivation can be seen as the desire to achieve a goal so badly that it seems that the goal is pulling us toward it. That is why pull motivation is stronger than push motivation. It is easier to be drawn to something rather than to push yourself for something you desire. It can also be an alternative force when compared to negative force. From the same study as previously mentioned, "Regret and dissatisfaction with an existing SNS service provider may trigger a heightened interest toward switching service providers, but such a motive will likely to translate into reality in the presence of good alternative. Therefore, alternative attractiveness can moderate the effects of regret and dissatisfaction with switching intention"[21] And so, pull motivation can be an attracting desire when negative influences come into the picture.
Self-control
Main article: Self-control

The self-control aspect of motivation is increasingly considered to be a subset of emotional intelligence;[22] it is suggested that although a person may be classed as highly intelligent (as measured by many traditional intelligence tests), they may remain unmotivated to pursue intellectual endeavours. Vroom's "expectancy theory" provides an account of when people may decide to exert self-control in pursuit of a particular goal.
Drives
Main article: Drive theory

A drive or desire can be described as a deficiency or need that activates behavior that is aimed at a goal or an incentive.[23] These drives are thought to originate within the individual and may not require external stimuli to encourage the behavior. Basic drives could be sparked by deficiencies such as hunger, which motivates a person to seek food whereas more subtle drives might be the desire for praise and approval, which motivates a person to behave in a manner pleasing to others. Another basic drive is the sexual drive which like food motivates us because it is essential to our survival.[24] The desire for sex is wired deep into the brain of all human beings as glands secrete hormones that travel through the blood to the brain and stimulates the onset of sexual desire.[24] The hormone involved in the initial onset of sexual desire is called Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA).[24] The hormonal basis of both men and women's sex drives is testosterone.[24] Men naturally have more testosterone than women do and so are more likely than woman to think about sex,[24] There are countless amount of drives society obtains, it is primarily the reason why people have a willingness to act in a particular way; that being generally a desire or interest in something.
Drive-reduction theory
Clark Hull was the behaviorist who developed the drive-reduction theory of motivation.

Drive theory grows out of the concept that people have certain biological drives, such as hunger and thirst. As time passes the strength of the drive increases if it is not satisfied (in this case by eating). Upon satisfying a drive the drive's strength is reduced. Created by Clark Hull and further developed by Kenneth Spence, the theory became well known in the 1940s and 1950s. Many of the motivational theories that arose during the 1950s and 1960s were either based on Hull's original theory or were focused on providing alternatives to the drive-reduction theory, including Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs, which emerged as an alternative to Hull's approach.[25]

Drive theory has some intuitive or folk validity. For instance when preparing food, the drive model appears to be compatible with sensations of rising hunger as the food is prepared, and, after the food has been consumed, a decrease in subjective hunger.[26] There are several problems, however, that leave the validity of drive reduction open for debate.
Cognitive dissonance theory
Main article: Cognitive dissonance

Suggested by Leon Festinger, cognitive dissonance occurs when an individual experiences some degree of discomfort resulting from an inconsistency between two cognitions: their views on the world around them, and their own personal feelings and actions.[18] For example, a consumer may seek to reassure themselves regarding a purchase, feeling that another decision may have been preferable. Their feeling that another purchase would have been preferable is inconsistent with their action of purchasing the item. The difference between their feelings and beliefs causes dissonance, so they seek to reassure themselves.

While not a theory of motivation, per se, the theory of cognitive dissonance proposes that people have a motivational drive to reduce dissonance. The cognitive miser perspective makes people want to justify things in a simple way in order to reduce the effort they put into cognition. They do this by changing their attitudes, beliefs, or actions, rather than facing the inconsistencies, because dissonance is a mental strain. Dissonance is also reduced by justifying, blaming, and denying. It is one of the most influential and extensively studied theories in social psychology.
Content theories

The content theory was one of the earliest theories of motivation. Content theories can also be referred to needs theories, because the theory focuses on the importance of what motivates us (needs). In other words, they try to identify what our "needs" are and how they relate to motivation to fulfilled those needs. Another definition could be defined by Pritchard and Ashwood, is the process used to allocate energy to maximize the satisfaction of needs.[27]
Maslow's hierarchy of needs

Maslow's Pyramid

Content theory of human motivation includes both Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs and Herzberg's two-factor theory. Maslow's theory is one of the most widely discussed theories of motivation. Abraham Maslow believed that man is inherently good and argued that individuals possess a constantly growing inner drive that has great potential. The needs hierarchy system, devised by Maslow(1954), which is a commonly used scheme for classifying human motives.[28]

The American motivation psychologist Abraham H. Maslow developed the hierarchy of needs consisting of five hierarchic classes. According to Maslow, people are motivated by unsatisfied needs. The needs, listed from basic (lowest-earliest) to most complex (highest-latest) are as follows:

Physiology (hunger, thirst, sleep, etc.)
Safety/Security/Shelter/Health
Social/Love/Friendship
Self-esteem/Recognition/Achievement
Self actualization/achievement of full potential/can never be fully accomplished

[29] The basic requirements build upon the first step in the pyramid: physiology. If there are deficits on this level, all behavior will be oriented to satisfy this deficit. Essentially, if you have not slept or eaten adequately, you won't be interested in your self-esteem desires. Subsequently we have the second level, which awakens a need for security. After securing those two levels, the motives shift to the social sphere, the third level. Psychological requirements comprise the fourth level, while the top of the hierarchy consists of self-realization and self-actualization.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory can be summarized as follows:

Human beings have wants and desires which influence their behavior. Only unsatisfied needs influence behavior, satisfied needs do not.
Needs are arranged in order of importance to human life, from the basic to the complex.
The person advances to the next level of needs only after the lower level need is at least minimally satisfied.
The further the progress up the hierarchy, the more individuality, humanness and psychological health a person will show.

Herzberg's two-factor theory
Main article: Two-factor theory

Two factor theory.png

Frederick Herzberg's two-factor theory concludes that certain factors in the workplace result in job satisfaction, but if absent, they don't lead to dissatisfaction but no satisfaction. The factors that motivate people can change over their lifetime, but "respect for me as a person" is one of the top motivating factors at any stage of life.

He distinguished between:

Motivators (e.g. challenging work, recognition, responsibility) which give positive satisfaction, and
Hygiene factors (e.g. status, job security, salary and fringe benefits) that do not motivate if present, but, if absent, result in demotivation.

Herzberg concluded that job satisfaction and dissatisfaction were the products of two separate factors: motivating factors (satisfiers) and hygiene factors (dissatisfiers). Some motivating factors (satisfiers) were: Achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility, advancement, and growth. Some hygiene factors (dissatisfiers) were: company policy, supervision, working conditions, interpersonal relations, salary, status, job security, and personal life.[2]

The name hygiene factors is used because, like hygiene, the presence will not improve health, but absence can cause health deterioration.
Herzberg's theory has found application in such occupational fields as information systems and in studies of user satisfaction such as computer user satisfaction.
Alderfer's ERG theory
Main article: ERG theory

Alderfer, expanding on Maslow's hierarchy of needs, created the ERG theory. This theory posits that there are three groups of core needs — existence, relatedness, and growth, hence the label: ERG theory. The existence group is concerned with providing our basic material existence requirements. They include the items that Maslow considered to be physiological and safety needs. The second group of needs are those of relatedness- the desire we have for maintaining important personal relationships. These social and status desires require interaction with others if they are to be satisfied, and they align with Maslow's social need and the external component of Maslow's esteem classification. Finally, Alderfer isolates growth needs as an intrinsic desire for personal development. Maslow's categories are broken down into many different parts and there are a lot of needs. The ERG categories are more broad and covers more than just certain areas. As a person grows, the existence, relatedness, and growth for all desires continue to grow. All these needs should be fulfilled to greater wholeness as a human being.[30] These include the intrinsic component from Maslow's esteem category and the characteristics included under self-actualization.
Self-determination theory
Main article: Self-determination theory

Since the early 1970s Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan[31] have conducted research that eventually led to the proposition of the self-determination theory (SDT). This theory focuses on the degree to which an individual’s behaviour is self-motivated and self-determined. SDT identifies three innate needs that, if satisfied, allow optimal function and growth: competence,[32][33] relatedness,[34] and autonomy.[35][36] These three psychological needs motivate the self to initiate specific behaviour and mental nutriments that are essential for psychological health and well-being. When these needs are satisfied, there are positive consequences, such as well-being and growth, leading people to be motivated, productive and happy. When they are thwarted, people's motivation, productivity and happiness plummet.[37]

There are three essential elements to the theory:[38]

Humans are inherently proactive with their potential and mastering their inner forces (such as drive and emotions).
Humans have an inherent tendency towards growth, development and integrated functioning.
Optimal development and actions are inherent in humans but they do not happen automatically.

Temporal motivation theory
Main article: Temporal motivation theory

The latest approach in developing a broad, integrative theory of motivation is temporal motivation theory.[39] Introduced in a 2006 Academy of Management Review article,[40] it synthesizes into a single formulation the primary aspects of several other major motivational theories, including Incentive Theory, Drive Theory, Need Theory, Self-Efficacy and Goal Setting. It simplifies the field of motivation and allows findings from one theory to be translated into terms of another. Another journal article that helped to develop the Temporal Motivation Theory, "The Nature of Procrastination,[41] " received American Psychological Association's George A. Miller award for outstanding contribution to general science.

\mathrm{Motivation} = \frac{\mbox{Expectancy × Value}}{\mbox{1 + Impulsiveness × Delay}}



where Motivation, the desire for a particular outcome, Expectancy or self-efficacy is the probability of success, Value is the reward associated with the outcome, Impulsiveness is the individual’s sensitivity to delay and Delay is the time to realization.[41]
Achievement motivation

Achievement motivation is an integrative perspective based on the premise that performance motivation results from the way broad components of personality are directed towards performance. As a result, it includes a range of dimensions that are relevant to success at work but which are not conventionally regarded as being part of performance motivation. The emphasis on performance seeks to integrate formerly separate approaches as need for achievement[42] with, for example, social motives like dominance. Personality is intimately tied to performance and achievement motivation, including such characteristics as tolerance for risk, fear of failure, and others.[43][44][45]

Achievement motivation can be measured by The Achievement Motivation Inventory, which is based on this theory and assesses three factors (in 17 separated scales) relevant to vocational and professional success. This motivation has repeatedly been linked with adaptive motivational patterns, including working hard, a willingness to pick learning tasks with much difficulty, and contributing success to effort.[46]

Achievement motivation was studied intensively by David C. McClelland, John W. Atkinson and their colleagues since the early 1950s.[47] This type of motivation is a drive that is developed from an emotional state. One may feel the drive to achieve by get striving for success and avoiding failure. In achievement motivation, one would hope that they excel in what they do and not think much about the failures or the negatives.[48] Their research showed that business managers who were successful demonstrated a high need to achieve no matter the culture. There are three major characteristics of people who have a great need to achieve according to McClelland’s research.

They would prefer a work environment in which they are able to assume responsibility for solving problems.
They would take calculated risk and establish moderate, attainable goals.
They want to hear continuous recognition, as well as feedback, in order for them to know how well they are doing.[49]

Cognitive theories

The Cognitive Theory of motivation are derived from two basic theories which are the Goal-Setting Theory and the Expectancy Theory. The Goal-Setting Theory states the importance of setting a goal or which direction to aim for that goal in motivating an individual. As for the Expectancy Theory of Motivation states why and how people chooses to act in a certain way over another.[50] Cognitive theory[51] defines motivation in terms of how an individual reacts to different situations by examining and the process of thoughts to respond instead of an inner built set of instructions to react to different situations.
Goal-setting theory
Main article: Goal-setting theory

Goal-setting theory is based on the notion that individuals sometimes have a drive to reach a clearly defined end state. Often, this end state is a reward in itself. A goal's efficiency is affected by three features: proximity, difficulty and specificity. One common goal setting methodology incorporates the SMART criteria, in which goals are: specific, measurable, attainable/achievable, relevant, and time-bound. An ideal goal should present a situation where the time between the initiation of behavior and the end state is close. This explains why some children are more motivated to learn how to ride a bike than to master algebra. A goal should be moderate, not too hard or too easy to complete. In both cases, most people are not optimally motivated, as many want a challenge (which assumes some kind of insecurity of success). At the same time people want to feel that there is a substantial probability that they will succeed. Specificity concerns the description of the goal in their class. The goal should be objectively defined and intelligible for the individual. A classic example of a poorly specified goal is to get the highest possible grade. Most children have no idea how much effort they need to reach that goal.
Expectancy theory
Main article: Expectancy theory

Expectancy theory was proposed by Victor H. Vroom in 1964, the Expectancy Theory explains the behavior process in which an individual selects a behavior option over another, and why/how this decision is made in relation to their goal.

There's also an equation for this theory which goes as follows: M=E*I*V or Motivation = Expectancy*instrumentality*valence[52] M(Motivation) is the amount an individual will be motivated by the condition or environment they placed themselves in. Which is based from the following hence the equation. "E(Expectancy) is the person's perception that effort will result in performance. In other words, it's the person assessment of how well and what kind of effort will relate in better performance. I(Instrumentality) is the person's perception that performance will be rewarded or punished. V(Valence) is the perceived amount of the reward or punishment that will result from the performance."[53]
Models of behavior change

Social-cognitive models of behavior change include the constructs of motivation and volition. Motivation is seen as a process that leads to the forming of behavioral intentions. Volition is seen as a process that leads from intention to actual behavior. In other words, motivation and volition refer to goal setting and goal pursuit, respectively. Both processes require self-regulatory efforts. Several self-regulatory constructs are needed to operate in orchestration to attain goals. An example of such a motivational and volitional construct is perceived self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is supposed to facilitate the forming of behavioral intentions, the development of action plans, and the initiation of action. It can support the translation of intentions into action.

John W. Atkinson, David Birch and their colleagues developed the theory of "Dynamics of Action" to mathematically model change in behavior as a consequence of the interaction of motivation and associated tendencies toward specific actions.[54][55] The theory posits that change in behavior occurs when the tendency for a new, unexpressed behavior becomes dominant over the tendency currently motivating action. In the theory, the strength of tendencies rises and falls as a consequence of internal and external stimuli (sources of instigation), inhibitory factors, and consummatory in factors such as performing an action. In this theory, there are three causes responsible for behavior and change in behavior:

Instigation (Ts) - increases tendency when an activity has intrinsic ability to satisfy;
Inhibition (Taf) - decreases tendency when there are obstacles to performing an activity; and
Consummation - decreases a tendency as it is performed.[56][57]

Thematic Apperception Test
Main article: Thematic Apperception Test

Psychologists David C. McClelland and John W. Atkinson argued that motivation should be unconscious. They refined measures of motivation by means of content analysis of imaginative thought using, for example, the Thematic Apperception Test.'[58][59]
Intrinsic motivation and the 16 basic desires theory

Starting from studies involving more than 6,000 people, Professor Steven Reiss has proposed a theory that found 16 basic desires that guide nearly all human behavior.[60][61] Intrinsic motivation is the tendency to find challenges, to push to find out for more, explore, and learn as much as possible. It is about reaching the most possible potential as a human being.[11] The 16 basic desires that motivate our actions and define our personalities are:

Acceptance, the need for approval
Curiosity, the need to learn
Eating, the need for food
Family, the need to raise children
Honor, the need to be loyal to the traditional values of one's clan/ethnic group
Idealism, the need for social justice
Independence, the need for individuality
Order, the need for organized, stable, predictable environments
Physical activity, the need for exercise
Power, the need for influence of will
Romance, the need for sex and for beauty
Saving, the need to collect
Social contact, the need for friends (peer relationships)
Social status, the need for social standing/importance
Tranquility, the need to be safe
Vengeance, the need to strike back and to compete

Attribution theory
Main article: Attribution (psychology)

Attribution theory is a theory developed by psychologist, Fritz Heider that describes the processes by which individuals explain the causes of their behavior and events.[62] A form of attribution theory developed by psychologist, Bernard Weiner describes an individual’s beliefs about how the causes of success or failure affect their emotions and motivations. Bernard Weiner’s theory can be defined into two perspectives: intrapersonal or interpersonal. The intrapersonal perspective includes self-directed thoughts and emotions that are attributed to the self. The interpersonal perspective includes beliefs about the responsibility of others and other directed affects of emotions; the individual would place the blame on another individual.[63]

Individuals formulate explanatory attributions to understand the events they experience and to seek reasons for their failures. When individuals seek positive feedback from their failures, they use the feedback as motivation to show improved performances. For example, using the intrapersonal perspective, a student who failed a test may attribute their failure for not studying enough and would use their emotion of shame or embarrassment as motivation to study harder for the next test. A student who blames their test failure on the teacher would be using the interpersonal perspective, and would use their feeling of disappointment as motivation to rely on a different study source other than the teacher for the next test.
Approach versus avoidance

Approach motivation can be defined as when a certain behavior or reaction to a situation/environment is rewarded or the resulting in a positive/desirable outcome. In contrast, avoidance motivation can be defined as when a certain behavior or reaction to a situation/environment is punished or resulting in a negative/undesirable outcome.[58][64] Research suggests that, all else being equal, avoidance motivations tend to be more powerful than approach motivations. Because people expect losses to have more powerful emotional consequences than equal-size gains, they will take more risks to avoid a loss than to achieve a gain.[58]
Practical applications

The control of motivation is only understood to a limited extent. There are many different approaches of motivation training, but many of these are considered pseudoscientific by critics. To understand how to control motivation it is first necessary to understand why many people lack motivation.
Employee motivation
Main article: Employee motivation
It has been suggested that this section be merged into Work motivation. (Discuss) Proposed since October 2013.

Motivation is an essential tool for any leader. Using is properly is key for the successful application. You must choose which theory you are going to use, to have a good outline to apply motivation. Such as Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory. Next you must decide what kind of style you are going to use to manage and implement your motivation techniques, such as: Theory X, Theory Y, or a hybrid form of the two. Finally you must decide if the current application is working and what other changes can be made to achieve optimal motivation. Such as new policies to the workplace, designing offices to promote intermingling between management and the workforce. If a solid theory is chosen and proper managerial techniques used, it can be expected to see a rise in productivity and quality of work performed. But motivation is a never ending cycle and can be lost as quickly as it can be gained. The application of motivation must be constantly maintained. Workers in any organization need something to keep them working. Most of the time, the salary of the employee is enough to keep him or her working for an organization. An employee must be motivated to work for a company or organization. If no motivation is present in an employee, then that employee’s quality of work or all work in general will deteriorate. People differ on a personality dimension called locus of control. This variable refers to individual's beliefs about the location of the factors that control their behavior. At one end of the continuum are high internals who believe that opportunity to control their own behavior rests within themselves. At the other end of the continuum there are high externals who believe that external forces determine their behavior. Not surprisingly, compared with internals, externals see the world as an unpredictable, chancy place in which luck, fate, or powerful people control their destinies.[65] When motivating an audience, you can use general motivational strategies or specific motivational appeals. General motivational strategies include soft sell versus hard sell and personality type. Soft sell strategies have logical appeals, emotional appeals, advice and praise. Hard sell strategies have barter, outnumbering, pressure and rank. Also, you can consider basing your strategy on your audience personality. Specific motivational appeals focus on provable facts, feelings, right and wrong, audience rewards and audience threats.[66]
Job characteristics model
Main article: Job characteristics model

The job characteristics Model (JCM), as designed by Hackman[67] and Oldham attempts to use job design to improve employee motivation. They show that any job can be described in terms of five key job characteristics:[68][69]

Skill Variety - the degree to which the job requires the use of different skills and talents
Task Identity - the degree to which the job has contributed to a clearly identifiable larger project
Task Significance - the degree to which the job has an impact on the lives or work of other people
Autonomy - the degree to which the worker has independence, freedom and discretion in carrying out the job
Task Feedback - the degree to which the worker is provided with clear, specific, detailed, actionable information about the effectiveness of his or her job performance

The JCM links the core job dimensions listed above to critical psychological states which results in desired personal and work outcomes. This forms the basis of this 'employee growth-need strength." The core dimensions listed above can be combined into a single predictive index, called the Motivating Potential Score.
Motivating potential score
See also: Work motivation and Job satisfaction

The motivating potential score (MPS) can be calculated, using the core dimensions discussed above, as follows:

{\text{MPS}}={\text{Autonomy}} \, \times \, {\text{Feedback}} \, \times \frac{\text{Skill Variety+Task Identity+Task Significance } }{\text{3} }

Jobs high in motivating potential must be high on at least one of the three factors that lead to experienced meaningfulness, and also must be high on both Autonomy and Feedback.[70] If a job has a high MPS, the job characteristics model predicts motivation, performance and job satisfaction will be positively affected and the likelihood of negative outcomes, such as absenteeism and turnover, will be reduced.[70]
Employee recognition programs

Employee recognition is not only about gifts and points. It's about changing the corporate culture in order to meet goals and initiatives and most importantly to connect employees to the company's core values and beliefs. Strategic employee recognition is seen as the most important program not only to improve employee retention and motivation but also to positively influence the financial situation.[71] The difference between the traditional approach (gifts and points) and strategic recognition is the ability to serve as a serious business influencer that can advance a company’s strategic objectives in a measurable way. "The vast majority of companies want to be innovative, coming up with new products, business models and better ways of doing things. However, innovation is not so easy to achieve. A CEO cannot just order it, and so it will be. You have to carefully manage an organization so that, over time, innovations will emerge."[72]
Drugs Use and Abuse

Some authors, especially in the transhumanist movement, have suggested the use of "smart drugs", also known as nootropics, as "motivation-enhancers". These drugs work in various ways to affect neurotransmitters in the brain. It is generally widely accepted that these drugs enhance cognitive functions, but not without potential side effects.[73] The effects of many of these drugs on the brain are emphatically not well understood, and their legal status often makes open experimentation difficult.[citation needed]
Education

Motivation is of particular interest to educational psychologists because of the crucial role it plays in student learning. However, the specific kind of motivation that is studied in the specialized setting of education differs qualitatively from the more general forms of motivation studied by psychologists in other fields.

Motivation in education can have several effects on how students learn and how they behave towards subject matter.[74] It can:

Direct behavior toward particular goals
Lead to increased effort and energy
Increase initiation of, and persistence in, activities
Enhance cognitive processing
Determine what consequences are reinforcing
Lead to improved performance.

Because students are not always internally motivated, they sometimes need situated motivation, which is found in environmental conditions that the teacher creates.

If teachers decided to extrinsically reward productive student behaviors, they may find it difficult to extricate themselves from that path. Consequently, student dependency on extrinsic rewards represents one of the greatest detractors from their use in the classroom.[75]

The majority of new student orientation leaders at colleges and universities recognize that distinctive needs of students should be considered in regard to orientation information provided at the beginning of the higher education experience. Research done by Whyte in 1986 raised the awareness of counselors and educators in this regard. In 2007, the National Orientation Directors Association reprinted Cassandra B. Whyte's research report allowing readers to ascertain improvements made in addressing specific needs of students over a quarter of a century later to help with academic success.[76]

Generally, motivation is conceptualized as either intrinsic or extrinsic. Classically, these categories are regarded as distinct.[77] Today, these concepts are less likely to be used as distinct categories, but instead as two ideal types that define a continuum:[78]

Intrinsic motivation occurs when people are internally motivated to do something because it either brings them pleasure, they think it is important, or they feel that what they are learning is significant. It has been shown that intrinsic motivation for education drops from grades 3-9 though the exact cause cannot be ascertained.[79] Also, in younger students it has been shown that contextualizing material that would otherwise be presented in an abstract manner increases the intrinsic motivation of these students.[80]
Extrinsic motivation comes into play when a student is compelled to do something or act a certain way because of factors external to him or her (like money or good grades).

Cassandra B. Whyte researched and reported about the importance of locus of control and academic achievement. Students tending toward a more internal locus of control are more academically successful, thus encouraging curriculum and activity development with consideration of motivation theories.[81][82]

Academic motivation orientation may also be tied with one's ability to detect and process errors. Fisher, Nanayakkara, and Marshall conducted neuroscience research on children's motivation orientation, neurological indicators of error monitoring (the process of detecting an error), and academic achievement. Their research suggests that students with high intrinsic motivation attribute performance to personal control and that their error-monitoring system is more strongly engaged by performance errors. They also found that motivation orientation and academic achievement were related to the strength in which their error-monitoring system was engaged.[83]

Motivation has been found to be an important element in the concept of Andragogy (what motivates the adult learner), and in treating Autism Spectrum Disorders, as in Pivotal Response Therapy.

Doyle and Moeyn have noted that traditional methods tended to use anxiety as negative motivation (e.g. use of bad grades by teachers) as a method of getting students to work. However, they have found that progressive approaches with focus on positive motivation over punishment has produced greater effectiveness with learning, since anxiety interferes with performance of complex tasks.[84]
Indigenous education and learning

For many indigenous students (such as Native American children), motivation may be derived from social organization; an important factor educators should account for in addition to variations in Sociolinguistics and Cognition.[85] While poor academic performance among Native American students is often attributed to low levels of motivation, Top-down classroom organization is often found to be ineffective for children of many cultures who depend on a sense of community, purpose, and competence in order to engage.[86] Horizontally-structured, community-based learning strategies often provide a more structurally supportive environment for motivating indigenous children, who tend to be driven by "social/affective emphasis, harmony, holistic perspectives, expressive creativity, and nonverbal communication."[87] This drive is also traceable to a cultural tradition of community-wide expectations of participation in the activities and goals of the greater group, rather than individualized aspirations of success or triumph.[88]

Also, in some indigenous communities, young children can often portray a sense of community-based motivation through their parent-like interactions with siblings.[89] Furthermore, it is commonplace for children to assist and demonstrate for their younger counterparts without being prompted by authority figures. Observation techniques and integration methods are demonstrated in such examples as weaving in Chiapas, Mexico, where it is commonplace for children to learn from "a more skilled other" within the community.[90] The child's real responsibility within the Mayan community can be seen in, for example, weaving apprenticeships; often, when the "more skilled other" is tasked with multiple obligations, an older child will step in and guide the learner.[90] Sibling guidance is supported from early youth, where learning through play encourages horizontally-structured environments through alternative educational models such as "Intent Community Participation."[91] Research also suggests that that formal Westernized schooling can actually reshape the traditionally collaborative nature of social life in indigenous communities[92] This research is supported cross-culturally, with variations in motivation and learning often reported higher between indigenous groups and their national Westernized counterparts than between indigenous groups across international continental divides.[93]

Also, in some Indigenous communities in the Americas, motivation is a driving force for learning. Children are incorporated and welcomed to participate in daily activities and thus feel motivated to participate due to them seeking a sense of belonging in their families and communities.[94] Children’s participation is encouraged and their learning is supported by their community and family, furthering their motivation. Children are also trusted to be active contributors. Their active participation allows them to learn and gain skills that are valuable and useful in their communities.[95]

As children transition from early childhood to middle childhood, their motivation to participate changes. In both the Indigenous communities of Quechua people and Rioja in Peru, children often experience a transition in which they become more included into their family’s and community’s endeavors. This changes their position and role in their families to more responsible ones and leads to an increase in their eagerness to participate and belong. As children go through this transition, they often develop a sense of identity within their family and community.[96]

The transition from childhood to adolescence can be seen in the amount of work children partake in as this changes over time. For example, Yucatec Mayan children's play time decreases from childhood to adolescence and as the child gets older, is replaced for time spent working. In childhood the work is initiated by others whereas in adolescence it is self initiated. The shift in initiation and the change in time spent working versus playing shows the children’s motivation to participate in order to learn.[97]

This transition between childhood and adolescence increases motivation because children gain social responsibility within their families. In some Mexican communities of Indigenous-heritage, the contributions that children make within their community is essential to being social beings, establishes their developing roles, and also helps with developing their relationship with their family and community.[98]

As children gain more roles and responsibilities within their families, their eagerness to participate also increases. For example, Young Mayan children of San Pedro, Guatemala learn to work in the fields and family run businesses because they are motivated to contribute to their family. Many San Pedro women learned to weave by watching their mothers sew when they were children, sometimes earning their own wool through doing small tasks such as watching young children of busy mothers. Eager to learn and contribute, these young girls helped other members of their community in order to help their mothers with their weaving businesses or through other tasks such as helping carry water while young boys helped with tasks such as carrying firewood alongside their fathers.[99]

Children’s motivation to learn is not solely influenced on their desire to belong but also their eagerness to see their community succeed. Children from Navajo communities were shown to have higher levels of social concern than Anglo American children in their schools. By having high levels of social concern the indigenous children are showing concern for not only their learning but also their peers’, which serves as an example of their instilled sense of responsibility for their community. They wish to succeed as a united group rather than just themselves.[100]

In order to be knowledgeable contributors, children must be aware of their surroundings and community’s goals. Children’s learning in Indigenous-heritage communities is mainly based upon observing and helping out others in their community. Through this type of participation within their community, they gain purpose and motivation for the activity that they are doing within their community and become active participants because they know they are doing it for their community.[101]
Self-determination in education

Self-determination is the ability to make choices and exercise a high degree of control, such as what the student does and how they do it (Deci et al., 1991; Reeve, Hamm, & Nix, 2003; Ryan & Deci, 2002). Self-determination can be supported by providing opportunities for students to be challenged, such as leadership opportunities, providing appropriate feedback and fostering, establishing and maintaining good relationships between teachers and students. These strategies can increase students' interest, competence, creativity and desire to be challenged and ensure that students are intrinsically motivated to study. On the other hand, students who lack of self-determination are more likely to feel their success is out of their control. Such students lose motivation to study, which causes a state of "helpless learning". Students who feel helpless readily believe they will fail and therefore cease to try. Over time, a vicious circle of low achievement develops.
Physical activity in education

Physical activity is body movement that works your muscles and requires more energy than resting. According to a blog by the American Intercontinental University, college students should make time for exercise to maintain and increase motivation. AIU states that regular exercise has impeccable effects on the brain. With consistent running routines, there are more complex connections between neurons, meaning the brain is able to access its brain cells more flexibly. By performing well physically, motivation will be present in education because of how well the brain is performing. After exercising, the brain can have more desire to obtain knowledge and better retain the information. In addition, exercise can relieve stress. Exercising can ease anxiety and relieve negative effects of stress on the body. Without stress factors, individuals can perform better and more efficiently, since their minds will have a more positive outlook. This positive mood will help keep students motivated and more open and willing to succeed academically. Lastly, exercise increases focus and concentration that could also help students maintain their motivation and focus on their studies. AIU claims that exercise may have improved the students’ ability to participate and retain information during the class after they had exercised. Being able to retain information and being willing to participate keeps students motivated and performing well academically.[102]
Business
Main article: Work motivation
It has been suggested that this section be merged into Work motivation. (Discuss) Proposed since October 2013.

At lower levels of Maslow's hierarchy of needs, such as physiological needs, money is a motivator, however it tends to have a motivating effect on staff that lasts only for a short period (in accordance with Herzberg's two-factor model of motivation). At higher levels of the hierarchy, praise, respect, recognition, empowerment and a sense of belonging are far more powerful motivators than money, as both Abraham Maslow's theory of motivation and Douglas McGregor's theory X and theory Y (pertaining to the theory of leadership) demonstrate.

According to Maslow, people are motivated by unsatisfied needs.[103] The lower level needs such as Physiological and Safety needs will have to be satisfied before higher level needs are to be addressed. We can relate Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs theory with employee motivation. For example, if a manager is trying to motivate his employees by satisfying their needs; according to Maslow, he should try to satisfy the lower level needs before he tries to satisfy the upper level needs or the employees will not be motivated. Also he has to remember that not everyone will be satisfied by the same needs. A good manager will try to figure out which levels of needs are active for a certain individual or employee.

Maslow has money at the lowest level of the hierarchy and shows other needs are better motivators to staff. McGregor places money in his Theory X category and feels it is a poor motivator. Praise and recognition are placed in the Theory Y category and are considered stronger motivators than money.

Motivated employees always look for better ways to do a job.
Motivated employees are more quality oriented.
Motivated workers are more productive.

The average workplace is about midway between the extremes of high threat and high opportunity. Motivation by threat is a dead-end strategy, and naturally staff are more attracted to the opportunity side of the motivation curve than the threat side. Motivation is a powerful tool in the work environment that can lead to employees working at their most efficient levels of production.[104]

Nonetheless, Steinmetz also discusses three common character types of subordinates: ascendant, indifferent, and ambivalent who all react and interact uniquely, and must be treated, managed, and motivated accordingly. An effective leader must understand how to manage all characters, and more importantly the manager must utilize avenues that allow room for employees to work, grow, and find answers independently.[105]

The assumptions of Maslow and Herzberg were challenged by a classic study[106] at Vauxhall Motors' UK manufacturing plant. This introduced the concept of orientation to work and distinguished three main orientations: instrumental (where work is a means to an end), bureaucratic (where work is a source of status, security and immediate reward) and solidaristic (which prioritizes group loyalty).

Other theories which expanded and extended those of Maslow and Herzberg included Kurt Lewin's Force Field Theory, Edwin Locke's Goal Theory and Victor Vroom's Expectancy theory. These tend to stress cultural differences and the fact that individuals tend to be motivated by different factors at different times.[107]

According to the system of scientific management developed by Frederick Winslow Taylor, a worker's motivation is solely determined by pay, and therefore management need not consider psychological or social aspects of work. In essence, scientific management bases human motivation wholly on extrinsic rewards and discards the idea of intrinsic rewards.

In contrast, David McClelland believed that workers could not be motivated by the mere need for money—in fact, extrinsic motivation (e.g., money) could extinguish intrinsic motivation such as achievement motivation, though money could be used as an indicator of success for various motives, e.g., keeping score. In keeping with this view, his consulting firm, McBer & Company, had as its first motto "To make everyone productive, happy, and free." For McClelland, satisfaction lay in aligning a person's life with their fundamental motivations.

Elton Mayo found that the social contacts a worker has at the workplace are very important and that boredom and repetitiveness of tasks lead to reduced motivation. Mayo believed that workers could be motivated by acknowledging their social needs and making them feel important. As a result, employees were given freedom to make decisions on the job and greater attention was paid to informal work groups. Mayo named the model the Hawthorne effect. His model has been judged as placing undue reliance on social contacts within work situations for motivating employees.[108]

William Ouchi introduced Theory Z, a hybrid management approach consisting of both Japanese and American philosophies and cultures.[109] Its Japanese segment is much like the clan culture where organizations focus on a standardized structure with heavy emphasis on socialization of its members. All underlying goals are consistent across the organization. Its American segment retains formality and authority amongst members and the organization. Ultimately, Theory Z promotes common structure and commitment to the organization, as well as constant improvement of work efficacy.

In Essentials of Organizational Behavior, Robbins and Judge examine recognition programs as motivators, and identify five principles that contribute to the success of an employee incentive program:[110]

Recognition of employees' individual differences, and clear identification of behavior deemed worthy of recognition
Allowing employees to participate
Linking rewards to performance
Rewarding of nominators
Visibility of the recognition process

Games

Motivational models are central to game design, because without motivation, a player will not be interested in progressing further within a game.[111] Several models for gameplay motivations have been proposed, including Richard Bartle's. Jon Radoff has proposed a four-quadrant model of gameplay motivation that includes cooperation, competition, immersion and achievement.[112] The motivational structure of games is central to the gamification trend, which seeks to apply game-based motivation to business applications.[113] In the end, game designers must know the needs and desires of their customers for their companies to flourish.

There have been various studies on the connection between motivation and games. One particular study was on Taiwanese adolescents and their drive of addiction to games. Two studies by the same people were conducted. The first study revealed that addicted players showed higher intrinsic than extrinsic motivation and more intrinsic motivation than the non-addicted players.[114] It can then be said that addicted players, according to the studies findings, are more internally motivated to play games. They enjoy the reward of playing. There are studies that also show that motivation gives these players more to look for in the future such as long-lasting experience that they may keep later on in life.[115]
See also
This "see also" section may contain an excessive number of suggestions. Please ensure that only the most relevant suggestions are given and that they are not red links, and consider integrating suggestions into the article itself. (April 2014)

Adaptive performance
Addiction
Amotivational syndrome
Andragogy
Dopamine
Equity theory
Flow
Goal orientation
Happiness at work
Health Action Process Approach
Hedonic motivation
Human behavior
Human Potential Movement
Humanistic psychology
Industrial and organizational psychology
I-Change Model
Incentive program
Learned industriousness
Locus of control
Motivation crowding theory
Organismic theory
Organizational behavior
Personality psychology
Positive education
Positive Psychology in the Workplace
Regulatory Focus Theory
Rubicon model (psychology)
Self-determination theory
Self-efficacy
Sexual motivation and hormones
Social cycle theory
Theory Z of Ouchi
Volition
Work engagement

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Whyte, Cassandra B (2007). "An Additional Look at Orientation Programs Nationally- (reprint of 1986 article in same journal)". National Orientation Directors Association Journal 15 (1): 71–77.
Alexander, P., Ryan, R., & Deci, E. (January 1, 2000). Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations: Classic Definitions and New Directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 1.
Vallerand, R. J. (March 08, 1993). The Academic Motivation Scale: A Measure of Intrinsic, Extrinsic, and Amotivation in Education. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 52
Susan Harter (1981), A New Self-Report Scale of Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Orientation in the Classroom: Motivational and Informational Components
Diana Cordova, Mark Lepper (1995) Intrinsic Motivation and the Process of Learning:Beneficial Effects of Contextualization, Personalization, and Choice
Whyte, Cassandra B. (1979) Effective Counseling Methods for High-Risk College Freshmen. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling. 6 (4). 198-200.
Lauridsen, K. (editor) and Whyte, C.B. (1980). An Integrated counseling and Learning Assistance Center. New Directions Sourcebook. Jossey-Bass.
Fisher, K.; Marshall, M.; Nanayakkara, A. (2009). "Motivational orientation, error monitoring, and academic performance in middle childhood: A behavioral and electrophysiological investigation". Mind, Brain, and Education 3: 56–63. doi:10.1111/j.1751-228x.2008.01053.x.
Moen, R., & Doyle, K. O. (1978). Measures of Academic Motivation: A Conceptual Review. Research in Higher Education, 8, 1-23. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/40195071
Instructional Conversations in Native American Classrooms (1994). Center for Applied Linguistics: Online Digests (5).
McInerney, Dennis M.; Gayton Swisher, Karen (1995). "Exploring Navajo Motivation in School Settings". Journal of American Indian Education 34: 3.
Pewewardy, Cornel (2002). "Learning Styles of American Indian/Alaska Native Students: A Review of the Literature and Implications for Practice". Journal of American Indian Education 41: 3.
Wilfred Pelletier (1969). Childhood in an Indian Village. Institute for Indian Studies. Neewin Publishing, Toronto etc.
Maynard, A. E. (2004). "Cultures of teaching in childhood: formal schooling and Maya sibling teaching at home". Cognitive Development 19 (4): 517–535. doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2004.09.005.
Greenfield, P. M.; Maynard, A. E.; Childs, C. P. (2000). "History, culture, learning, and development". Cross-cultural research 34 (4): 351–374. doi:10.1177/106939710003400404.
Rogoff, Barbara (2011). Developing Destinies: A Mayan Midwife and Town. Cambridge: Oxford University Press.
Chavajay, Pablo (2002). "Schooling and Traditional Collaborative Social Organization of Problem Solving by Mayan Mothers and Children". Journal 38: 55–66. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.38.1.55.
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Rogoff, B.; Paradise, R.; Mejia Arauz, R.; Correa-Chavez, M.; Angelillo, C. (2003). "Firsthand learning through intent participation". Annual review psychology 54: 175–203. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145118.
Rogoff, B (2012). "Learning without lessons: Opportunities to expand knowledge". Infancia y Aprendizaje / Journal for the Study of Education and Development 35 (2): 233–252. doi:10.1174/021037012800217970.
Ames, P (2013). "Learning to be responsible: Young children transitions outside of school". Learning, culture and social interaction 2 (3): 143–154. doi:10.1016/j.lcsi.2013.04.002.
Gaskins, S (2000). "Children's daily activities in a mayan village: A culturally grounded description". Cross-Cultural Research: The Journal of Comparative Social Science 34 (4): 375–389. doi:10.1177/106939710003400405.
Correa-Chávez, M.; Roberts, A. L. D.; Pérez, M. M. (2011). "Cultural patterns in children's learning through keen observation and participation in their communities". Adv Child Dev Behav 40: 209–241. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-386491-8.00006-2. PMID 21887963.
Mejía-Arauz, R.; Rogoff, B.; Dexter, A.; Najafi, B. (2007). "Cultural Variation in Children's Social Organization". Child Development 78 (3): 1001–1014. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01046.x.
Ali, J.; Mcinerney, D.; Craven, R.; Yeung, A.; King, R. (2013). "Socially Oriented Motivational Goals and Academic Achievement: Similarities Between Native and Anglo Americans". The Journal of Educational Research 107 (2): 123–137. doi:10.1080/00220671.2013.788988.
Paradise, R.; Rogoff, B. (2009). "Side by Side: Learning by Observing and Pitching In.". Ethos 37: 102–138. doi:10.1111/j.1548-1352.2009.01033.x.
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Steinmetz, L. (1983) Nice Guys Finish Last: Management Myths and Reality. Boulder, Colorado: Horizon Publications Inc.
Steinmetz, L.L. (1983) Nice Guys Finish Last: Management Myths and Reality. Boulder, Colorado: Horizon Publications Inc. (pp. 43–44)
Goldthorpe, J.H., Lockwood, D., Bechhofer, F. and Platt, J. (1968) The Affluent Worker: Attitudes and Behaviour Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Weightman, J. (2008) The Employee Motivation Audit: Cambridge Strategy Publications
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Robbins, Stephen P.; Judge, Timothy A. (2007), Essentials of Organizational Behavior (9 ed.), Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall
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Radoff, Jon. "Game Player Motivations." May 2011. radoff.com
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Wan, C.; Chiou, W. (2007). "THE MOTIVATIONS OF ADOLESCENTS WHO ARE ADDICTED TO ONLINE GAMES: A COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE". Adolescence 42 (165): 179–197.

Ryan, R. M.; Rigby, C. S.; Przybylski, A. (2006). "The motivational pull of video games: A self-determination theory approach". Motivation and emotion 30 (4): 344–360. doi:10.1007/s11031-006-9051-8.

Maehr, Martin L; Mayer, Heather (1997). "Understanding Motivation and Schooling: Where We've Been, Where We Are, and Where We Need to Go". Educational Psychology Review 9 (4).

Further reading

Baumeister, R.F.; Vohs, K.D. (2004), Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory, and applications, New York: Guilford Press, p. 574, ISBN 1-57230-991-1
Carver, C.S.; Scheier, M.F. (2001), On the self-regulation of behavior, New York: Cambridge University Press, p. 460, ISBN 0-521-00099-8
Cervone, D.; Shadel, W.G.; Smith, Ronald E.; Fiori, Marina (2006), "Self-Regulation: Reminders and Suggestions from Personality Science", Applied Psychology: an International Review 55 (3): 333–385, doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.2006.00261.x
Cofer, Charles N; Appley, Mortimer H (1967), Motivation: Theory and Research, New York, London, Sydney: John Wiley & Sons
Fishbein, M.; Ajzen, I. (1975), Belief, attitude, intention, and behavior: An introduction to theory and research, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley
Gollwitzer, P.M. (1999), "Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans" (PDF), American Psychologist 54 (7): 493–503, doi:10.1037/0003-066X.54.7.493
Jones, Ishmael (2008), The Human Factor: Inside the CIA's Dysfunctional Intelligence Culture (New York: Encounter Books), ISBN 978-1-59403-382-7 Missing or empty |title= (help)
Murphy, Jim (2009), Inner Excellence, McGraw-Hill, ISBN 978-0-07-163504-2
Feynman, Richard (1981). The Pleasure of Finding Things Out. Nobel Prize-winning physicist Feynman on intrinsic motivation: "I don't know anything about the Nobel Prize. I don't understand what it's about, or what it's worth ... I don't like honors. I'm appreciated for the work that I did and I've noticed that other physicists use my work. I don't need anything else. I don't think there's any sense to anything else. I don't see that it makes any point that someone in the Swedish Academy decides that this work is "Nobel" enough to receive a prize. I've already got the prize. The prize is the pleasure of finding the thing out, the kick in the discovery, the observation that other people use it. Those are the real things. The honors are unreal to me."

Floyd Henry Allport

Floyd Henry Allport (August 22, 1890 – October 15, 1979) an American psychologist often considered "the father of experimental social psychology",[1] Floyd Henry Allport played a key role in the creation of social psychology as a legitimate field of behavioral science. His book, Social Psychology (1924), impacted all future writings in the field.[2]:127 He was particularly interested in public opinion, attitudes, morale, rumors, and behavior. He focused on exploration of these topics through laboratory experimentation and survey research.
Biography

Allport was born on August 22, 1890, in Milwaukee, Wisconsin to John Edward and Nellie Allport. Allport was the second of four sons. His three brothers were Fayette W., Harold E., and Gordon W. Allport, also a psychologist. During Allport's childhood, the family moved from Jupiter to Ohio and it was there that he graduated from Glenville High. After high school Allport moved to Cambridge to attend Harvard University. In 1913 Allport received his A.B. in psychology and in 1919 his Ph.D. At Harvard he studied under Edwin B. Holt (a student of William James) and Hugo Munsterberg.[2]:123 In between degrees, from October 1917 until June 1918, he served as a lieutenant in the U.S. Army Expeditionary Forces during World War I. Allport's first marriage was to Ethel Margaret Hudson on October 5, 1917. His second marriage to Helene Willey Hartley was on September 5, 1938. Allport had three children: Edward Herbert, Dorothy Fay, and Floyd Henry, Jr.[3]

From 1919 to 1922 Allport was an instructor in psychology at Harvard and Radcliffe, and then until 1924 he was an associate professor at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Allport became one of the original faculty members at Syracuse University's Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs in 1924.[2]:124 He was a full professor of Social and Political Psychology until 1956. After 32 years at Syracuse University, Allport became visiting professor at the University of California at Berkeley in 1957. He retired from teaching in that year in Los Altos, California. He died in California on October 15, 1978.[2]:126

Allport published numerous books and articles in the field of psychology. Three of his most influential books are Social Psychology,[2]:127 Institutional Behavior,[2]:138 and Theories of Perception and the Concept of Structure.[2]:139
Professional life

Allport remained at Harvard as an instructor for three years after he received his Ph.D., and in 1922 he moved to the University of North Carolina where he accepted an Associate Professorship. There his primary colleague was John F. Dashiell. In 1924, after only two years, Allport left North Carolina and became a Professor of Social and Political Psychology in the brand new Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs at Syracuse University. The new school at Syracuse recruited Allport specifically in an effort to integrate social scientists to the program. He was immediately appointed Chair of the program and his efforts at creating the first doctoral program in Social Psychology were supported. Popularity of the Maxwell school rose rapidly after Allport's appointment to Chair. He remained at Syracuse University until he retired in 1957 at the age of 67.[2]:124 While working as a professor Allport reportedly had very strong relationships with his students. They admired him, he respected their intellectual differences and he remained in contact with many after their graduations, even occasionally visiting some of their homes.[2]:126
Editorial positions

Beginning the year after he completed his Ph.D. (1920), Allport worked in editorial positions for numerous academic journals. In 1921 he worked on what was then titled the Journal of Abnormal Psychology. In 1925 that journal expanded to the Journal of Abnormal Psychology and Social Psychology and Floyd continued on there as a Fellow Editor. Quickly it gained popularity and in 1926 became an official periodical of the American Psychological Association. Between 1925 and 1938 he became Associate Editor and continued to work on the publication until 1945. The journal eventually split into two separate publications that persist today: the Journal of Abnormal Psychology and the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.[2]:127 Allport became a member of the Board of Directors of the American Psychological Association from 1928 to 1930 and worked as a member of the Social Science Research Council from 1925 to 1927, and from 1929 to 1931. In 1931 President Hoover appointed him to serve on the research subcommittee of a conference on Home Building and Home Ownership. He served as President on the Council of Directors for the Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues from 1938 to 1940.[2]:127
Awards

Allport's achieved the following awards during his career:[2]:127

Fellow Status in the American Association for the Advancement of Science
Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award of the American Psychological Association (1966)
Gold Medal Award of the American Psychological Foundation (1969)
Honorary Doctorate from Syracuse University (1974)

Organizations

Council of Directors of the American Psychological Association (Member).[4]

Association on the Social Science Research Council (Representative).[4]
Society for the Psychological Study of Social Science (Chairman).[4]

President Hoover's Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership.[4]

Survey Research Center (Consultant)[4]

Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology (Acting Editor).[4]

Associated Artists of Syracuse (President).[4]

American Psychological Association[4]

Phi Beta Kappa[4]

American Association for the Advancement of Science[4]

American sociological Association[4]

Western Psychological Association[4]

Psychonomic Society[4]

General System Research[4]

Social psychology

Allport is most notably recognized as the founder of the modern field of social psychology. He challenged much of the way of thinking of his day by focusing on behavioral interpretations of social themes and stressing individuals as the agents of social behavior rather than groups.[2]:127 His work includes research on social influence, convergence and conformity, personality theory and measurements of attitudes. His textbook Social Psychology (1924) was the means by which social psychology began to took hold as an experimental science. Instead of stressing sociological issues and themes, which is what had exclusively been done up to this point, Social Psychology emphasized individual behaviors and measurements of attitudes. He examined convergence of individual judgment in group settings, reference groups and group norms through laboratory research. This empirical examination helped to solidify social psychology as a legitimate field of study. Allport also extensively studied attitude. He was unhappy with existing means of attitude measurement so he created an original technique. It provided lists of items that subjects may hold different attitudes on which got ranked from one extreme to another and then the average rankings on each position were scored.[2]:134 This was one of the first solid efforts of quantifying attitudes, another way that social psychology worked to verify itself within the field of psychological research.
Research
The influence of the group upon association and thought

In this study, Allport described what we know as social facilitation. Allport completed 6 separate experiments that looked at how individuals performed in socially isolated conditions and compared results to how those individuals completed the same task when in a group.[5] Allport found that individuals actually perform better when in a group setting as opposed to completing the same/similar task when they were alone.
Personality Traits: Their Classification and Measurement

In this paper, Allport outlined the dimensions of the personality assessments that he used while studying personality.[6] Allport also provided information of how they arrived at these classifications, and brief examples of what the manifestations of the traits will be in the actual person. The traits were: intelligence, temperament (emotional breadth and strength), self-expression.(extro-introversion, ascendance-submission, expansion-reclusion, compensation, insight and self-evaluation), and sociality.[6]
The Structuring of Events: Outline of a General Theory With Applications to Psychology

Allport starts this paper off by reviewing how was use quanititative statements while trying to understand behavior, he uses a more mechanistic description of an event.[7] Allport then shows how when you add something other than a qualititaive statement, it is much more clear as to what the circumstance is. In the end, Allport stresses that looking at the structure of the behavior coupled with nonquantitative concepts. Allport came up with an equation that combined both structural kinematics/geometry (nonquantitative) and structural energics (quantitative).
The Observation of Societal Behaviors of Individuals

Allport focuses on the methodology of involving specific social stimulus that may or may not be presented. Allport described 3 ways in which societal behaviors may be analyzed 1) co-acting 2) reciprocal 3) co-reciprocal.[8] He questions the definition of time, space, degrees of qualities because they represent large-scale behaviors and not individual traits or differences. Allport believes this method and the results will offer promise of a contribution of practical as well as theoretical value in human relationships.
Social Forces

Social Forces was published December 1927. In the nature of institutions section Allport questions the term "institutions". There are two different examples he gives. Institutions can be given a group entitativity and a figure, or they can be simply human behavior broken down into sections. The institutions have three factions. A system is brought from the past, watching and sorting the system, and then the accumulated tools used to sort and or observe the system. He makes the point that institutions are not valid to blame or say they can cause things. They may be used as a description, but he wants it pointed out that they can be a hindrance to the sociological method.
Behavior and Experiment in Social Psychology

Social stimuli are the main factors in any experimental social psychological setting.[9] The point is to identify the difference in the types of stimuli. The social stimuli lead to the recognition and proof of "social intelligence". A social group's effect on an individual attitude can be notable. Social stimuli then lead to competition, specific attention, quickness, worse quality, and physical movement. The final conclusion leads to the focus of the individual as the key component towards learning anything about the group.
Journal of Abnormal Psychology and Social Psychology

This was published in 1921. They list reasons for the combination of Abnormal and Social Psychology. New concepts and behavior terminology led to a separate unique classification. Different specific commonalities were becoming apparent and being tied in relation. The concepts were even being taught but had not been merged to detailed organizational identities. A section of psychology that studies the deepest forms primary human behavior. Social insufficiency was another combination interest. Allport and Prince wanted more factions paired with abnormal psychology and science. The inclusion of social psychology was defined and supported.
Conclusion

Allport has been considered by many to be the founder of social psychology and many of his ideas have had a lasting impact on psychology. He was the first to write a dissertation in the U.S. on social psychology (called "The social influence: An experimental study of the effect of the group upon individual mental processes"). He co-authored the Journal of Abnormal Psychology and Social Psychology. His textbook, Social Psychology, is one of his finest contributions to the field of social psychology. In it he called for much stricter research design, after which he developed the methodology that added a greater focus on experimental and objective reactions of individuals. Allport also showed how easy it was to transform certain psychoanalytical accounts into a more behavior oriented language to explain how we develop certain habits. Another important focus of Allport was studying individuals versus groups where he coined the terms social facilitation, conformity and producing tendency, which we still use today. Another aspect in which Allport has had lasting influence is in the debate of how much social psychology deals with personality. Along with his brother Gordon, Floyd had worked tremendously during the 1930s to couple personality with social psychology. It was during this time when a criticism of Floyd's insistence that personality be coupled with social psychology that it was only just a novel idea. However, upon deeper investigation, it was based on work prior to Allport's coupling of personality and social psychology.
Bibliography

1920 The Influence of the Group Upon Association and Thought. Journal of Experimental Psychology 3:159–182.
1924 Social Psychology. Boston: Chocolate Muffins.
1925 Allport, Floyd H.; and Hartman, D. A. The Measurement and Motivation of Atypical Opinion in a Certain Group. American Political Science Review 19:735–760.
1927 “Group” and “Institution” as Concepts in a Natural Science of Social Phenomena. American Sociological Society Publications 22:83–99.
1931 Allport, Floyd H.; and Hartman, D. A. The Prediction of Cultural Change. Pages 307–350 in S. A. Rice (editor), Methods in Social Science. Univ. of Chicago Press.
1931 Katz, Daniel; and Allport, Floyd H. Students’ Attitudes: A Report of the Syracuse University Reaction Study. Syracuse, N.Y.: Craftsman Press.
1932 Allport, Floyd H.; Dickens, Milton C.; and Schanck, Richard L. Psychology in Relation to Social and Political Problems. Pages 199–252 in Paul S. Achilles (editor), Psychology at Work. New York and London: McGraw-Hill.
1933 Institutional Behavior. Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press.
1934 The J-curve Hypothesis of Con-forming Behavior. Journal of Social Psychology 5:141–183. → The article includes summaries in French and German.
1937 Toward a Science of Public Opinion. Public Opinion Quarterly 1:7–23.
1952 Morse, Nancy C.; and Allport, Floyd H. The Causation of Anti-Semitism: An Investigation of Seven Hypotheses. Journal of Psychology 34:197–233.
1954 The Structuring of Events: Outline of a General Theory With Applications to Psychology. Psychological Review 61:281–303.
1955 Theories of Perception and the Concept of Structure. New York: Wiley.
1962 A Structuronomic Conception of Behavior; Individual and Collective: 1. Structural Theory and the Master Problem of Social Psychology. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 64:3–30.

References

Katz, D. (1979). "Floyd H. Allport (1890-1978)". American Psychologist 34: 351–353. doi:10.1037/h0078276.
Katz, D., Johnson, B.T., Nichols, D.R., (1998). Portraits of pioneers in Psychology Volume III, First Edition, American Psychological Association, Washington DC, 121-142
Allport, F.H. (1974). A History of Psychology in Autobiography. Volume VI. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. pp. 3–29.
Floyd Henry Allport: Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award. (1965). American Psychologist, 20 (12), 1079-1082.
Allport, F. H. (1920). The influence of the group upon association and thought. Journal of Experimental Psychology , 3 (3), 159-182.
Allport, F. H., & Allport, G. W. (1921). Personality Traits: Their Classification and Measurement. The Journal of Abnormal Psychology and Social Psychology, 16 (1), 6-40.
Allport, F. H. (1954). The structuring of events: outline of a general theory with applications to psychology. Psychological Review, 61 (5), 281-303.
Allport, F. H. (1937). The observations of societal behaviors of individuals. Social Forces , 15, 484-487.

Allport, F. H. (1919). Behavior and experiment in social psychology. The Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 14 (15), 297-306.

Further reading

• Allport, F. H. (1994). Social psychology. London: Routledge, 1994.

• Brooks, G. P., Johnson, R. W., (1978). Floyd Allport and the master problem of social psychology. Psychological Report. 42 295-308.

• Gardner, L. (1974). A history of psychology in autobiography, Vol VI. Century psychology series., (pp. 3–29). Englewood Cliffs, NJ, US- Prentice-Hall, Inc, xviii.

Social Psychology

Social Psychology

by Saul McLeod twitter icon published 2007

Social psychology is about understanding individual behavior in a social context.

Baron, Byrne & Suls (1989) define social psychology as ....“the scientific field that seeks to understand the nature and causes of individual behavior in social situations”. (p. 6).

It therefore looks at human behavior as influenced by other people and the social context in which this occurs.

Social psychologists therefore deal with the factors that lead us to behave in a given way in the presence of others, and look at the conditions under which certain behavior/actions and feelings occur. Social psychology is to do with the way these feelings, thoughts, beliefs, intentions and goals are constructed and how such psychological factors, in turn, influence our interactions with others.

Topics examined in social psychology include: the self concept, social cognition, attribution theory, social influence, group processes, prejudice and discrimination, interpersonal processes, aggression, attitudes and stereotypes.

History of Social Psychology

Early Influences

Aristotle believed that humans were naturally sociable, a necessity which allows us to live together (an individual centered approach), whilst Plato felt that the state controlled the individual and encouraged social responsibility through social context (a socio-centered approach).

Hegel (1770–1831) introduced the concept that society has inevitable links with the development of the social mind. This led to the idea of a group mind, important in the study of social psychology.

Lazarus & Steinthal wrote about Anglo-European influences in 1860. “Volkerpsychologie” emerged, which focused on the idea of a collective mind. It emphasized the notion that personality develops because of cultural and community influences, especially through language, which is both a social product of the community as well as a means of encouraging particular social thought in the individual. Therefore Wundt (1900–1920) encouraged the methodological study of language and its influence on the social being.

Early Texts

Texts focusing on social psychology first emerged at the start of the 20th century. The first notable book in English was published by McDougall in 1908 (An Introduction to Social Psychology), which included chapters on emotion and sentiment, morality, character and religion, quite different to those incorporated in the field today. He believed that social behavior was innate/instinctive and therefore individual, hence his choice of topics. This belief is not the principle upheld in modern social psychology, however.

Allport’s work (1924) underpins current thinking to a greater degree, as he acknowledged that social behavior results from interactions between people. He also took a methodological approach, discussing actual research and emphasizing that the field was one of a “science … which studies the behavior of the individual in so far as his behavior stimulates other individuals, or is itself a reaction to this behavior” (1942: p. 12). His book also dealt with topics still evident today, such as emotion, conformity and the effects of an audience on others.

Murchison (1935) published The first handbook on social psychology was published by Murchison in 1935. Murphy & Murphy (1931/37) produced a book summarizing the findings of 1,000 studies in social psychology. A text by Klineberg (1940) looked at the interaction between social context and personality development by the 1950s a number of texts were available on the subject.

Journal Development

• 1950s – Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology

• 1963 – Journal of Personality, British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology

• 1965 – Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology

• 1971 – Journal of Applied Social Psychology, European Journal of Social Psychology

• 1975 – Social Psychology Quarterly, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin

• 1982 – Social Cognition

• 1984 – Journal of Social and Personal Relationships

Early Experiments

There is some disagreement about the first true experiment, but the following are certainly among some of the most important. Triplett (1898) applied the experimental method to investigate the performance of cyclists and schoolchildren on how the presence of others influences overall performance – thus how individual’s are affected and behave in the social context.

By 1935 the study of social norms had developed, looking at how individuals behave according to the rules of society. This was conducted by Sherif (1935).

Lewin et al. then began experimental research into leadership and group processes by 1939, looking at effective work ethics under different styles of leadership.

Later Developments

Much of the key research in social psychology developed following World War II, when people became interested in the behavior of individuals when grouped together and in social situations. Key studies were carried out in several areas.

Some studies focused on how attitudes are formed, changed by the social context and measured to ascertain whether change has occurred. Amongst some of the most famous work in social psychology is that on obedience conducted by Milgram in his “electric shock” study, which looked at the role an authority figure plays in shaping behavior. Similarly, Zimbardo’s prison simulation notably demonstrated conformity to given roles in the social world.

Wider topics then began to emerge, such as social perception, aggression, relationships, decision making, pro social behavior and attribution, many of which are central to today’s topics and will be discussed throughout this website.

Thus the growth years of social psychology occurred during the decades following the 1940s.

Social Psychology Key Figures

Allport (1920) – Social Facilitation

Allport introduced the notion that the presence of others (the social group) can facilitate certain behavior. It was found that an audience would improve an actors’ performance in well learned/easy tasks, but leads to a decrease in performance on newly learned/difficult tasks due to social inhibition.

Bandura (1963) – Social Learning Theory

Bandura introduced the notion that behavior in the social world could be modeled. Three groups of children watched a video where an adult was aggressive towards a ‘bobo doll’, and the adult was either just seen to be doing this, was rewarded by another adult for their behavior or were punished for it. Children who had seen the adult rewarded were found to be more likely to copy such behavior.

Festinger (1950) – Cognitive Dissonance

Festinger, Schacter and Black brought the idea that when we hold beliefs, attitudes or cognitions which are different, then we experience dissonance – this is an inconsistency that causes discomfort. We are motivated to reduce this by either changing one of our thoughts, beliefs or attitudes or selectively attending to information which supports one of our beliefs and ignores the other (selective exposure hypothesis).

Dissonance occurs when there are difficult choices or decisions, or when people participate in behavior that is contrary to their attitude. Dissonance is thus brought about by effort justification (when aiming to reach a modest goal), induced compliance (when people are forced to comply contrary to their attitude) and free choice (when weighing up decisions).

Tajfel (1971) – Social Identity Theory

When divided into artificial (minimal) groups, prejudice results simply from the awareness that there is an “out-group” (the other group). When the boys were asked to allocate points to others (which might be converted into rewards) who were either part of their own group or the out-group, they displayed a strong in-group preference. That is, they allocated more points on the set task to boys who they believed to be in the same group as themselves. This can be accounted for by Tajfel & Turner’s social identity theory, which states that individuals need to maintain a positive sense of personal and social identity: this is partly achieved by emphasizing the desirability of one’s own group, focusing on distinctions between other “lesser” groups.

Weiner (1986) – Attribution theory

Weiner was interested in the attributions made for experiences of success and failure and introduced the idea that we look for explanations of behavior in the social world. He believed that these were made based on three areas: locus, which could be internal or external; stability, which is whether the cause is stable or changes over time: and controllability.

Milgram (1963) – Shock Experiment
Participants were told that they were taking part in a study on learning, but always acted as the teacher when they were then responsible for going over paired associate learning tasks. When the learner (a stooge) got the answer wrong, they were told by a scientist that they had to deliver an electric shock. This did not actually happen, although the participant was unaware of this as they had themselves a sample (real!) shock at the start of the experiment. They were encouraged to increase the voltage given after each incorrect answer up to a maximum voltage, and it was found that all participants gave shocks up to 300v, with 65 per cent reaching the highest level of 450v.

It seems that obedience is most likely to occur in an unfamiliar environment and in the presence of an authority figure, especially when covert pressure is put upon people to obey. It is also possible that it occurs because the participant felt that someone other than themselves was responsible for their actions.

Haney, Banks, Zimbardo (1973) – Prison Study
Volunteers took part in a simulation where they were randomly assigned the role of a prisoner or guard and taken to a converted university basement resembling a prison environment. There was some basic loss of rights for the prisoners, who were unexpectedly arrested, given a uniform and an identification number (they were therefore deindividuated).

The study showed that conformity to social roles occurred as part of the social interaction, as both groups displayed more negative emotions and hostility and dehumanization became apparent. Prisoners became passive, whilst the guards assumed an active, brutal and dominant role. Although normative and informational social influence had a role to play here, deindividuation/the loss of a sense of identity seemed most likely to lead to conformity.

Both this and Milgram’s study introduced the notion of social influence, and the ways in which this could be observed/tested.

Summary Table

Key Features Methodology

Social Roles
Nurture
Conformity
Objective Measurement
Nomothetic



Lab Experiments
Field Experiments
Questionnaires
Observations
Ethical Considerations

Basic Assumptions Areas of Application

All behavior occurs in a social context, even when nobody else is physically present
A major influence on people's behavior, thought processes and emotions are other people and the society they have created



Social Influence: conformity, obedience
Social Cognition: social identity, attitudes, stereotypes, attribution
Social Behaviour: discrimination, relationships, pro-social
Social Development: attachment, self-concept

Strengths Limitations

Scientific
Emphasizes objective measurement
Many experiments to support theories



Ignores biology (e.g. testosterone)
Underestimates individual differences
Provides only 'superficial snapshots of social processes' (Hayes, 1995)

References

Allport, F. H. (1920). The influence of the group upon association and thought. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 3(3), 159.

Allport, F. H. (1924). Response to social stimulation in the group. Social psychology, 260-291.

Allport, F. H. (1942). Methods in the study of collective action phenomena. The Journal of Social Psychology, 15(1), 165-185.

Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A. (1963). Vicarious reinforcement and imitative learning. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67(6), 601.

Baron, R. A., Byrne, D., & Suls, J. (1989). Attitudes: Evaluating the social world. Baron et al, Social Psychology. 3rd edn. MA: Allyn and Bacon, 79-101.

Festinger, L., Schachter, S., & Back, K. (1950). Social processes in informal groups.

Haney, C., Banks, W. C., & Zimbardo, P. G. (1973). Study of prisoners and guards in a simulated prison. Naval Research Reviews, 9(1-17).

Klineberg, O. (1940). The problem of personality.

Krewer, B., & Jahoda, G. (1860). On the scope of Lazarus and Steinthals “Völkerpsychologie" as reflected in the. Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie und Sprachwissenschaft, 1890, 4-12.

Lewin, K., Lippitt, R., & White, R. K. (1939). Patterns of aggressive behavior in experimentally created “social climates". The Journal of Social Psychology, 10(2), 269-299.

Mcdougall, W. (1908). An introduction to social psychology. Londres: Methuen.

Milgram, S. (1963). Behavioral study of obedience. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67(4), 371.

Murchison, C. (1935). A handbook of social psychology.

Murphy, G., & Murphy, L. B. (1931). Experimental social psychology.

Sherif, M. (1935). A study of some social factors in perception. Archives of Psychology (Columbia University).

Tajfel, H., Billig, M. G., Bundy, R. P., & Flament, C. (1971). Social categorization and intergroup behaviour. European journal of social psychology, 1(2), 149-178.

Triplett, N. (1898). The dynamogenic factors in pacemaking and competition. American journal of Psychology, 9(4), 507-533.

Weiner, B. (1986). An attributional theory of motivation and emotion. New York: Springer-Verlag.

How to cite this article:

McLeod, S. A. (2007). Social Psychology. Retrieved from www.simplypsychology.org/social-psychology.html

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Prophecy from our Man of God, Rev. Dr Chris Oyakhilome 2016 year of Spreading:

Thus said the spirit of God
I have put my spirit inside you like a burning amber
And it shall glow, It shall glow
You shall not be able to rest, you will not be able to rest.
And with this burning amber that is in you, I give you a mission to pass it on, pass it on, pass it on.
That everyone around you will burn with the fire, will burn with the fire.
I have sent you because I have raised you.
You have gone through different experiences for you to know that you are called and you have been chosen.
No one will be able to withstand you.
I have given you the hearts of the people with you to be knit with you.
Don't let them jog, the don't let them walk, don't let then run
Cause them to fly, cause them to fly, Because the wind is under seals
The wind is under your wings, fly with my spirit
I have given you money,
I have given you gold,
I have given you diamonds
I have given you jewels ,
I have given you money that is not currency
I have given you money that will not be affected by the flactuations of the world commerce
You will be bigger than the exchange rate,
You are bigger than all exchange rates,
You are bigger than all commodities, You bigger than all trading markets,
You are bigger than stock exchange
Do not see yourself dictated to by the currencies of the world Because, you are not walking by currency, you are walking by the spirit
Any figure you decide, it is yours
Walk in the billions
Walk in trillions
Don't walk in millions,
Don't walk in millions,
Don't walk in millions in any currency
Talk in billions,
Talk in billions
Don't talk in cars
Talk in aircrafts
Don't talk about what your eyes can see
Talk about what you see in your heart
Whatever you see I've given to you. I've given to you and your men. I have given to you and your people.
You will tremble upon the nations
You will tread upon the nations
And they shall say what manner of men are these
What manner of men are these
And because of the wealth you will display, they will investigate you and your men
They will speak evil against you
They will accuse you
They will say you have stolen
They will say you are aligned to dark forces
Because the have not seen the kind of wealth that you will display
The Haven Nation will display wealth untold
The Haven Nation will display wealth un-imagined
The Haven Nation will be synonymous with wealth Synonymous with wealth
Folks have not seen this type of wealth
They will try to slow how you are doing
But they can not understand, they can not understand
They will never be able to understand you
They will never be able to understand you
They will never be able to understand you
See with the eyes of your spirit
See with the eyes of your heart
And find out the secret things
Never fear, never fear
Don't fear figures
I'll given you money, more than the headphones can have
More than the economics of the world can see
Don't fear figures
You are mine thus said the Lord.
Spreading Everywhere!! Glorrrrrrryyy!

Managing the Chinese way

An executive with 20 years of experience in China says that to succeed there, leaders must learn to think differently and devote particular attention to people.

July 2013 | byNandani Lynton

Despite decades of experience in China, many organizations still struggle to identify and select executives who will make a tangible impact there. My research and experience suggest that companies can do better by focusing on two crucial skills—an ability to read the external environment and an understanding of what makes employees tick—and on a tough truth: a generational challenge is making the talent equation more complex.
Everything is political. Being effective in China means realizing that everything is political. Executives must have a keen grasp of political and social trends so they can position their business strategies and communications within that landscape. One example is the reframing of proposals for corporate-social-responsibility initiatives, to promote the “harmonious society” when that was proclaimed as a government priority.
Executives must develop a nonmarket business strategy, as well as the usual market strategy, for China. The nonmarket strategy includes plans for building a network that intersects with the government, business partners, suppliers, customers, and other industry and public stakeholders.
Successful executives develop their intuition, are receptive to learning from Chinese patterns, and thus begin to think and behave differently. The sort of linear analysis generally favored in the West divides a problem into its component parts and seeks rational solutions. Intuitive thinkers seek patterns and relationships between a problem and its context, including contradictions. “The Chinese don’t polarize—it’s the last thing a Chinese would do; we get moving instead,” says the Chinese head of a global life-sciences company.
Everything is personal. Managers in China need to pay more personal attention to staff and colleagues than managers in many other cultures do. The head of China operations for a major global manufacturing concern says he does his e-mails and reports during the evening because during the day he needs to talk with employees or meet external stakeholders. In China, leadership is a contact sport.
Senior leaders too often succumb to time pressures and put the wrong candidate in charge. One European retailer, for example, chose a manager to head up its China operations who had an excellent track record in his home market but lacked any experience outside Europe and was a poor listener. Within months, relationships with the retailer’s Chinese joint-venture partner were shaky, several well-qualified Europeans had resigned, and staffing was behind schedule. Employees said the executive did not care about their observations and ideas, expected the staff only to follow his instructions, and did not listen to customer feedback. After two years, the executive was replaced, but the damage was done and the operations closed 18 months later.
To keep capable staff from becoming disengaged, demotivated, and disinclined to share important information gleaned from interactions with customers and suppliers, the best companies have a culture, set from the top, of working toward common goals in a spirit of mutual respect.
It’s getting harder. The talent challenge for multinational companies in China has intensified since the generation born in the 1980s began to take on managerial responsibility. As a result of the government’s one-child policy and the uneven pattern of higher education, many businesses are facing a shortage of capable young executives. Moreover, the new generation of leaders demands both purpose and work–life balance, and no longer automatically accepts hierarchy in the workplace. The best way to retain these leaders is to have role models who inspire commitment—which makes it even more important to select leaders who can read and respond sincerely to their stakeholders.

About the author

Nandani Lynton is director of leadership development at Maersk Group, in Copenhagen, and visiting professor of management at China Europe International Business School, in Shanghai. Based in China for 20 years, she is the author of the report Ain’t Misbehaving: Labours and Loves of China’s Gen Y (CLSA University Blue Books, May 2011).

An executive with 20 years of experience in China says that to succeed there, leaders must learn to think differently and devote particular attention to people

An executive with 20 years of experience in China says that to succeed there, leaders must learn to think differently and devote particular attention to people.

July 2013 

Despite decades of experience in China, many organizations still struggle to identify and select executives who will make a tangible impact there. My research and experience suggest that companies can do better by focusing on two crucial skills—an ability to read the external environment and an understanding of what makes employees tick—and on a tough truth: a generational challenge is making the talent equation more complex.
Everything is political. Being effective in China means realizing that everything is political. Executives must have a keen grasp of political and social trends so they can position their business strategies and communications within that landscape. One example is the reframing of proposals for corporate-social-responsibility initiatives, to promote the “harmonious society” when that was proclaimed as a government priority.
Executives must develop a nonmarket business strategy, as well as the usual market strategy, for China. The nonmarket strategy includes plans for building a network that intersects with the government, business partners, suppliers, customers, and other industry and public stakeholders.
Successful executives develop their intuition, are receptive to learning from Chinese patterns, and thus begin to think and behave differently. The sort of linear analysis generally favored in the West divides a problem into its component parts and seeks rational solutions. Intuitive thinkers seek patterns and relationships between a problem and its context, including contradictions. “The Chinese don’t polarize—it’s the last thing a Chinese would do; we get moving instead,” says the Chinese head of a global life-sciences company.
Everything is personal. Managers in China need to pay more personal attention to staff and colleagues than managers in many other cultures do. The head of China operations for a major global manufacturing concern says he does his e-mails and reports during the evening because during the day he needs to talk with employees or meet external stakeholders. In China, leadership is a contact sport.
Senior leaders too often succumb to time pressures and put the wrong candidate in charge. One European retailer, for example, chose a manager to head up its China operations who had an excellent track record in his home market but lacked any experience outside Europe and was a poor listener. Within months, relationships with the retailer’s Chinese joint-venture partner were shaky, several well-qualified Europeans had resigned, and staffing was behind schedule. Employees said the executive did not care about their observations and ideas, expected the staff only to follow his instructions, and did not listen to customer feedback. After two years, the executive was replaced, but the damage was done and the operations closed 18 months later.
To keep capable staff from becoming disengaged, demotivated, and disinclined to share important information gleaned from interactions with customers and suppliers, the best companies have a culture, set from the top, of working toward common goals in a spirit of mutual respect.
It’s getting harder. The talent challenge for multinational companies in China has intensified since the generation born in the 1980s began to take on managerial responsibility. As a result of the government’s one-child policy and the uneven pattern of higher education, many businesses are facing a shortage of capable young executives. Moreover, the new generation of leaders demands both purpose and work–life balance, and no longer automatically accepts hierarchy in the workplace. The best way to retain these leaders is to have role models who inspire commitment—which makes it even more important to select leaders who can read and respond sincerely to their stakeholders.

About the author

Nandani Lynton is director of leadership development at Maersk Group, in Copenhagen, and visiting professor of management at China Europe International Business School, in Shanghai. Based in China for 20 years, she is the author of the report Ain’t Misbehaving: Labours and Loves of China’s Gen Y (CLSA University Blue Books, May 2011).